Wednesday, August 28, 2013

INTELLECT INDIA [Part C] by Professor Dr. Kotcherlakota Lakshmi Narayana

trusciencetrutechnology@blogspot.com

Volume 2013, Issue No.7, July 2, 2013, Time: 9h36m A. M.
INTELLECT INDIA
[Part C]
by
Professor Dr. Kotcherlakota Lakshmi Narayana
{Retd. Prof. of Physics, SU, Kolhapur}, 17-11-10, Narasimha Ashram, Official Colony, Maharanipeta.P.O, Visakhapatnam-530002
Mobile No: 9491902867 & 9594717723
ORIGINAL DRAFT ON: 23rd July 2011 : 18h01mPM

ABSTRACT
Dhyanam and sometimes known as upasana practice makes every artist in India and the Craftsman to achieve the degree of perfection of bringing out the self intended form out of their art work. Hindu epics-Mahabharata and Ramayana depict these craftsmen use indigenous colors made from Minerals, Gum and Herbs. The now familiar Gold in Nirmal work is got from Herbal Juices. The Charkul Dance-Drama, of Central India revolves around a story generally from the Indian epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. While Western dance it has borrowed from Indian folk dance through the medium of the Gypsies. Many of the tribal groups configure fine Bamboo splits or Paya to make an interesting musical instrument that is played with the mouth. The paya must be 15 cm long and 1.5 cm broad. Santoor, which originated from the Vedic Vana Veena, belongs to the Kashmir Valley that is neither seen nor played anywhere else. The Amareswaraswamy temple in Amaravathi, the Lakshminarasimhaswamy temple in Mangala Giri, Siva temple in Pedakakani reminds one of INTELLECT INDIA prior to Buddhism all located just 30km away from Vijayawada. Use of tamarind paste and turmeric powder to do metla puja (i.e., adoring the steps) to the Godess Durga or Kali, probably is as ancient as the temples. A dyke on Kupgal Hill contains hundreds and perhaps thousands of rock art engravings, or petro-glyphs, a large quantity of which date to the Neolithic, or late Stone Age (several thousand years BC). Some of it is now at threat from quarrying activities. The Rameswaram Temple of thousand pillars has music ringing tone constructs. Ancient Indians made 'rock music'. . Large and small temples built during this era remain as examples of the Hoysala architectural style, including the Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura. Ruins of Mohenjo-Daro, came the discovery of the figure of the Dancing Girl - further reinstating the fact that sculpture along with the use of Metal Alloys was well known to people even then. Alloy of Five Metals symbolizing the Five elements was adopted. The Metals are 1.Copper, 2.Brass, and 3.Lead with a little bit of 4.Gold and 5.Silver. The alloy, panchloha, symbolized panchbhutian, the five basic elements - earth, water, ether, air and fire - denoting the omnipresence of God and Nature. A smelting furnace dated 800 BC is found in Naikund (Maharashtra), India. Recent discoveries reveal that Iron was known in the Ganga valley in mid second millennium BCE. In the mid-first millennium BCE, the Indian Wootz Steel was very popular in Persian courts for making Swords. These paintings at Ajanta and Ellora depict though 500 years old, the paint has not only retained its color but also much of its luster. British culprits have removed some paintings by pulling them out from the surface of the rocks using adhesive coated cloth and canvases. In spite of being a sandy area, it is very green with a variety of flora. This is the Nandanavan of Rameshwar. This island shrine consists of 24 odd holy water sources like Rama teerth, Sita Kund, Jata Teerth, Lakshman Teerth, Kapi Teerthas, Brahmakund, Galawa teerth, Mangala teerth, Kodandaram teerth, Pandav teerth etc., The waters at all these places is sweet and has a taste of its own. The spotlight on the treasures housed in hundreds of temples and monasteries without proper security. In India.  In 2010, two ancient idols were stolen from the Shoolini temple in Solan town. In another incident, ancient coins and silver artefacts went missing from the Suryavanshi temple in Kullu town.

METAL CASTINGS

       
 The Bastar and Chattisghad areas of Vanvashis have a finely refined and extraordinary INTELLECT of metal castings and the preparation of exemplary items of decorative items of ordinary home use.

Bronze Castings
                            Dhyanam and sometimes known as upasana practice makes every artist in India and the Craftsman to achieve the degree of perfection of bringing out the self intended form out of their art work. Therefore before making bronze idols, the craftsman had to carefully study the verses from the Shilpashastra. The verses instructed the craftsmen on physical measurements, proportions, description of the deity, characteristics, symbolism and above all, aesthetics. This is how the craftsmen set about creating masterpieces from bronze in ancient India. What is also interesting is the guidance that was sought from nature for modeling icons: eyebrows, were modeled after neem leaf or fish; nose, the sesume flower; the upper lip, a bow; chin, a mango stone; neck, the conch shell and so on.

Sheet Metal

            An evidence of it is present from the days of Ramayana since the great epics warriors of India have used the deftly made shields of metallic ware. Pembarthi village in Warangal District of Andhra Pradesh saw its glory during the reign of Kakatiyas. You'd be wondering why and how. It is a 500 year old answer! During the period of Kakatiya rule, sheet metal workmanship adorned the vigrahas and vahanas. With temples proliferating in the vast Kakatiya kingdom, the Pemparthi sheet metal worker saw his fame attract people from all religions of India.

Dokra 

Unfortunately even the present Indian Government and the people of India alike describe the forest nature loving and living human Intellect of India as Tribes. The word tribe is coined by the Britishers but in India these people were the most respected and honored. The enslaved generations of India by the Muslim ruthlessness and the British suppression regard them as Tribes as if they are the sole monarchs of the Intellect India. The Vanprsthavan and the Manyam humans, maintained even to-date, the Dokra metal craft which is common to the forest and Aranya Vashi humans, in the hilly belts of Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Bengal and Andhra Pradesh  In Andhra Pradesh this craft is found in Chittalbori  and Ushegaon in Adilabad District .What makes Dokra unique is that no two pieces are like. Deftly aerated by hand, the objects have individualistic touch. Figurines, horses, drummers’ peculiar shaped spoons and hauntingly original tribal Gods can be seen in Dokra.

Lacquerware

Lacquer craft is application of lacquer on wood in pleasing shades to create a distinctive appeal. Etikoppaka in Andhra Pradesh is one of the most important centers of this craft. Lacquering is done on a lathe, hand or machine-operated. For turning slender and delicate items, the hand-lathe is preferred. Lac is applied in a dry state. That is, the lac-stick is pressed against the woodenware to be lacquered. As the latter keeps revolving the heat from friction softens the lac, enabling the color to stick. Designs are painted with a brush on figures, objects and toys. Among the most popular Lacquerware are the lac bangles. Hitherto studded with Gold and Precious Stones, today they are also available with beads, glass, stones, mirrors and more.

Nirmal: In Nirmal town, Adilabad district of Andhra Pradesh, there is a concentration of craftsmen known as Nakash, whose traditional art is painting scenes from the Hindu epics-Mahabharata and Ramayana. These craftsmen use indigenous colors made from Minerals, Gum and Herbs. The now familiar Gold in Nirmal work is got from Herbal Juices. The knowledge of this art might have been exported to Egyptians for decoration of their mummies, of course of the rich kings only. The knowledge of this art known throughout ancient India has been completely ousted out by the Muslim rulers and artisans were many killed. Over the years, Nirmal work has grown to meet new needs. Moving away from being mere painters of epics, the craftsmen today paint motifs in the style of Indian schools.

Puppets, Toys, Leather Dolls and Games Shows
       
               In India, toys and dolls have a history as old as icons and idols themselves. From the realm of divine inspiration to, day to day recreation, the craftsmen with their innate skills transformed mundane objects as toys into expressions of art. In fact, Andhra Pradesh has a number of toy forms such as Leather puppets, kondapalli dolls, tirupati dolls, Nirmal toys and Etikoppaka dolls. The form of animation movies were created by the Andhra people called (Tholubommalu Ata) leather dolls Game i.e. viewed through a magnifying glass by an individual audience. Others were to wait for their turn to observe the show. It was very popular in the rural areas. The epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata were depicted to the common man and women in this style of presentation. Intricate arrangement of threads and fine rapid movements were made in these leather puppet shows so that the viewer would get a full feeling of real life situations of fights,  arguments and love etc. emotions of the story characters.

Folk Paintings
                         There is a very picturesque origin to the art of painting. "Narayan", the Supreme Being was engaged in meditation when celestial dancing girls’ apsaras tried to disturb him with a display of coquetry and blandishments. The god conceived of a plan to cure the maidens of their vanity. The apsaras were put to shame when they saw this painted maiden Urvashi, and crept away silently from God's presence. And the picture, into which Divine skill had infused the golden breath of life, became the ideal form of feminine beauty. Vishwakarma, the architect of heaven, was then instructed bin the art and science of painting so that he might transmit his knowledge to the people of the earth. The Vishwakarma art was not simply confined to paintings but as well to all forms of craftsmanship.

Kalamkari and Block-printed Fabrics

                        Kalamkari is a craft of painted and printed fabrics. It derives its name from kalam or pen with which the patterns are traced. It is an art form that developed both for decoration and religious ornamentation. The discovery of a resist-dyed piece of cloth on a silver vase at the ancient site of Harrapa confirms that the tradition of Kalamkari is very old. Even the ancient Buddhist Chaitya Viharas were decorated with Kalamkari cloth. The great Alexander is also supposed to have acquired this Kalamkari cloth. In Andhra Pradesh, Kalmkari is done in Machillipatnam and Srikalahasti. The Indigo like natural organic colors were nicely blended to the cloth in Karmakari art with a perfect science of covalent bonding or chemical adhesion with the cellulosic threads of the variety of dress material apart from cotton and silks. It’s interesting to note that Mahatma Gandhi fought British on the ban they imposed to cultivate the Indigo crop in India to protect their synthetic product of color preparations. Rajendhra Prasad met him first time in the very court room arguments with the British Raj rulers. Machilipatnam Kalamkari craft almost died during 1960 due to the successive state governments apathy towards this art. Balayagudem Cooperative Industry revived it partly from the help of Kamla Deviji and Nelli Sethna’s intervention. The later brought out the details from old scriptures and manuscripts and collected even the ancient printing blocks. New formats, borders, bed sheets, table linen and saris have been given for the artisans. In 1982 Marthand Singh collected lot of museum pieces designs got blocks made in Mumbai, and revived Machilipatnam Mihrab (produced by P.M. Eswarudu and his father Nageswara Rao) design.  Many adulterations and screen printing techniques have sprung up and Government help and recognition to the artisans of Kalamkari craft it appears, never reaches to them. Viswakarma Museums need to be permanently established in India.

Ikat


                      Ikat, the technique by which the wrap or weft or both be tie-dyed in such a way that when woven, the 'programmed' pattern appears in finished fabric. Of resist-dye techniques, the use of clay or wax-resist has long been known to Indian textile printers and painters, who would stamp or delineate the fabric with resist and then immerse and re-immerse in dye. To reserve areas of the warp or weft or both, before the process of weaving with tied threads, and then to dye the yarn, is more interesting process that requires greater skill. And this seems to be more closely aligned to weaving, than to the application of impression of a resist to the surface of a fabric. Fabric lining with silver Zari and even golden Zari was a great art that still survives in Surat and to-day even Christmas gifts are being made to satisfy the westerners.

Saris
          
                            Andhra has the bright Venkatagiri saris which are woven with the help of a fly-shuttle loom, thrown from side to side. Venkatagiri saris are woven with pleasant colors, decorated with patterns of gold laces, dots, coins, leaves, parrots, and or simple geometrical patterns. Narayanpet saris, in cotton and silk, some from place with the same name. The cotton saris woven in dark earthy colors are particularly eye catching. The Gadwal cotton and Kothakota saris from Vanaparti have a rich gold borders and heavy panels like Pallavas. It seems that the Saris made in Paithan were of exceptional quality in the 3rd BC to 4AD period of Andhra Kingdom rulers.

 Crochet Lace

       The ancient lace and Dakkha muslin cloth productions were ruthlessly converted by Muslim rulers and Nawabs to decorate their ward robes and to conceal their veiled Muslim women of Harems (secluded women confined within four walls for pleasure seeking by Muslim rich and kings) as well, the abducted Indian pretty women, from various parts of the country. The practice of abduction of pretty women was also imitated by some Indian kings for the satisfaction of their lust and greed during both the Muslim Rule and the British Raj in India. Reintroduced in the middle of the 19th century to provide employment to the poverty stricken women of the area, lace work was, to start with, sent to friends and relatives abroad as gifts which were highly appreciated by the Western and Muslim countries. Starting with a mere dozen designs, the local skills were used to evolve as many as 300 designs over the years which speaks of the high artistic sense of the artisans. The raw materials and implements required for this industry are simple, consisting of only a hooked needle and cotton thread. The thread used is twisted mercerized cotton thread. The craft is carried on by thousands of women working part time at their homes in Narsapur and Palakol areas of West Godavri District and Razole Taluka of East Godavri District.

Banjara Embroidery
             Think of nomads, caravaners, gypsies and you think of them as "free people". Free from the binds of urban life, they evoke dreams of the life spirit roaming without fetters. The Banjaras in Andhra Pradesh seem to have captured their exuberant clothes from this art. Nomads in the past, the Banjaras today aggregate in groups called tandas. Staying in communes, they still strive to preserve the fascinating and unpredictable traditions of their ancestors. Tattooed women with hands weighed down by ivory bangles create the memorable mirror and symmetry art work for which the Banjaras are famous.                    

DANCE and MUSIC

Popular dances of ancient India even to-date are listed below.
1. Bharat Natyam
2. Kuchipudi
3. Kathakali
4. Mohini Attmam
5. Odissy
6. Manipuri
7. Kathak
8. Yaksha ganam
9. Bangra.

Books on Dance theater of ancient orgin are 1.Hastha Laksha Deepika 2. Kochala Bgaratha 3. Dathilan 4. Sangeeta Ratnakar
Kamas raga à erotic feelings; Mkhanià Compassion. Saranga raga à geroic.
Rules to build Melody:
I. Janaka Raga (Melakantha ragas about 72) and II. Janyu Raga(adopts scales from the previous Janaka ragasa)
Melodyà Raga
Rhythmà concept of Tala
Lyrical à Pallavi.

ABINAYA: Has 4 parts, 1. Satvikaà mind shooting feelings:  2. Vachikaà expression through perfection of speech and song:  3.Angikaà gestures and rhythm of movements:  4. Aharyaà that with the aid of dress and decorative ornaments.
In enacting a drama-play let one should have both Kavya Lakshana and as well Bhasha Lakshana.

Apart from Shiva even Ganesha and Sri Krishna are associated with dance and music. India has many classical dance styles. The oldest text dealing with aesthetics covering various art forms including dance is the Natyashastra which is authored by Bharatamuni. The sacred number 108 specifies the 108 combinations of hand and feet to present the Bharat Natyam.

Kadha means a story in Telugu. Depiction of a story with hand and feet gestures is very well known in the villages of India. They used to enact some styles of dance-drama even while working in the farms and especially in the rice (fields) transplantation, cutting and heap making time of the produce. Probably it has become Kath in Sanskrit language.

Matanga in 600-700 AD gave Bharat Natyasangraha with details of Raga, Tal.
Brihadderi Raga Sangeeta of Sarangadev of 1210-1247AD specifies, Swaras, Ragas, Prabhandha and Tala- Vadyas as well Gamakas.

Fig.12 C  


                                     All the Indian classical dance styles viz. Bharata Natyam, Kuchipudi, Kathak, Odissi, Mohiniattam, Kathakali, Bangra, Manipuri, etc., are derived from the Natyashastra. Some of these dance styles have evolved from folk dances and are intimately connected with the art of story telling. Most of these stories are drawn from our epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata. Kuchipudi and other traditional dances are performed by artists families extended over several generations who faithfully with all the devotion preserve it as their family’s pride and talent. Tales from collections like the Panchatantra, Hitopadesha, Katha Sarit Sagara, etc., also from the subject matter of these dance styles. In fact the Kathak and Kathakali from U.P. and Kerala respectively, derive their names from the term Katha which in Sanskrit means a story. As the story is told in the form of dance, these dance styles can actually be called dance-dramas, the only difference is the absence of dialogues.

Rasa
Bhava
1
Adbhuta(marvelous)
Vismaya
2
Hasya( comic)
Hasya (Mirth)
3
Srigaram(Erotic)
Rati (Love)
4
Bhibatsa(odious)
Juggyupsa(disgust)
5
Vira(Heroic)
Utsaha(enjoy)
6
Karuna(Pathetic)
Soka(sorrow)
7
Bhayanaka(fear)
Bhaya(terror)
8
Raudra( furious)
Krodha(Anger)
9
Shaanta(Peace)
---

The Charkul Dance-Drama, of Central India revolves around a story generally from the Indian epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Similar traditions of dance-dramas, are prevalent in other parts of India too. In Maharashtra, you have the Dashavatara, in Karnataka you have the Yakshagana The Kathak dance of North India and the ktha*ali dance of Kerala also originated as dance-dramas and derive their names from the Sanskrit work 'Katha' which means a story.

The story has to be told solely through actions and hence an elaborate pattern of facial expressions (Mudra), movement of hands (Hasta) and the simulation of various moods like anger (Krodha), envy (Matsara), greed (Lobha), lust (Kama), ego (Mada), etc., have been evolved. The mastery of perfect expression of these feelings by subtle movement of the lips and eyes forms the root of all the classical Indian dance styles.  Navarasas that is about nine emotional ordinary feelings of a human being are nicely depicted with the Dance-dramas presentations in the interiors of the villages. In evry art these Navarasas are vividly depicted by the villagers.

In fact the combination of the three qualities viz. expression, rhyme and rhythm i.e. Bhava, Raga, and Tala go into the determination of the term Bha-Ra-Ta, which is used as the name of one dance style viz. Bharata Natyam. The integration of Indian classical dance with the physical exercises of Yoga and the breath control of "Pranayam" has perfected the dance styles. Yoga especially had given the dance styles an excellent footwork which is called Padanyasa and Padalalitya. Another feature of these dance styles is that they are integrated with theology and worship.

An excellent social tradition is reflected in the Bangra dance of Punjab province. And even to-date the art is thriving and Rekha Malhotra, of Brooklyn New York, with the help of modern techniques of combination of Song and operation of a modern keyboard of a music box provides support to the Dance in the auditorium. She runs a Segment production society and released DG Rekha 17 track mix CD.

Traditionally these dances were patronized by the temples. During festivals and other religious occasions, these dances were performed in the temple premises to propitiate the deity. But many Dance-dramas are enacted in the remote villages beginning late in the night at 11PM and continue to be oerformed through the nght up to 4.30AM. What surprises one is the excellent LANGUAGE DIALOGUES THEY USE AND THE PERFECT Music accomplisahments, to generate the full feeling of the scean reality of the epic or story they depict through these performances. The audiences are held spell bound. Thus the dance came to combine both art and worship. Even today every recital of any Indian classical dance begins with an invocation to Nataraja or Nateshwara the god of dance. In Indian folklore and legend, the God of Dance is himself shown to be dancing in a form called the Tandava. This has also been depicted in the statues and carvings in temples like, Khajuraho and Konark in Northern India, and at Chidambaram, Madurai, Rameshwaram, etc. in the South. Indian dances have also evolved styles based on the Tandava like the Urdhra Tandava, Sandhya Tandava, etc. Indian classical dance found its way outside India, especially to the countries of Southeast Asia. The dance styles of Thailand, Indonesia, Burma, etc., have so heavily borrowed from the Indian classical dance traditions that to a casual observer there would seem to be hardly any difference between the two. While Western dance has not directly borrowed anything from Indian classical dance, it has borrowed from Indian folk dance through the medium of the Gypsies.

                      Since Vedic times, Indians had been required to correctly recite, the Vedas. The correctness in recitation was very important as the Vedas were, in those days, transmitted through memory (Smriti) and were learnt through hearing (Shruti). This was so, as writing was absent in early Vedic times.

RECITATION AND MUSIC

An emphasis on recitation and the correct pronunciation lead to studies in phonetics and sound perfection:

                                Even today the Vedas are traditionally learnt through oral studies. This was the birthplace of Indian Musical Raga (metre) and Swaras (rhymes). That Music in ancient India was given considerable recognition is illustrated by the fact that Saraswati, the Indian goddess of learning is shown to be holding a musical instrument (Veena) in her hand.  Traditionally, vocal music in India has tended to be devotional music (Bhakti-geet), and temples have been places (as they still are) where musicians used to practice music to please the deity and the devotees. Indian vocal music is broadly divided into two schools viz. the Hindustani or north Indian school and the Carnatic or South Indian school. As far as instrumental music goes there is a general identity of instruments that have been used. The main Indian musical instruments are the Sarod, the Veena, the Sarangi,  the Tambora, the Harmonium, the Ghata, the Tabla, the Tanpura, the Satar, etc., As compared to art and architecture Indian music has had less impact on the outside world. This was so as most of Indian musical instruments require specialized material and craftsmanship for their manufacture.

                                   
                         In the absence of transmission by Guru and Disciple system  of these skills and, in the absence of trade in musical instruments, along with negligence in the necessity of long and arduous practice which, was required to master these instruments, the sustenance of this among the masses made the learning of music a difficult task. However, as far as, devotional vocal music goes, Indian musical traditions did travel to the countries of South East Asia.  



                         Important musical instruments even to-day used are 1. Violin 2. Sitar 3. Sarod 4. Veena 5. Shahanai 6. Tabala 7. Nadaswara 8. Mrudhangam 9. Flute 10 Sarani the other things are Jalatharangi etc innumerable practiced in Indian villages and theaters.

RAGA SYSTEM

Melodius combination of notes of musical scale, ornamentation (Gamaka) permutations and combinations of notes rendered in partial sequence of either Arohana.i.e.,ascent or avarohana i.e,.descent. Combination of Swara is the key to Raga System. Sangeeta sara was written by Vidyaranya Swami of Hampi & Vijayanagar founder in 1320-1380 classified them as Melas (Parent) an Janya ragas.

TALA SYSTEM

            It is a perfect time scaie to regulate the music or even the enactment of Dance or Drama.It is purely mathematical and exhibits inherene coherence, logical rigidity, numeric accuracy. There are 108 derivatives of Tala. Main are 1.dhruva (1011) 2. Mattya tala (101) 3. Roopaka tala (01) 4. Jhampa tala (1U0) 5. Tripura Tala ( 100) 6. Ata tala 1100. 7. Eka tala ( just 1) where drutam is 0, laghu is 1 and anudrutam is U.  There are another  three angas of Tala apart from the three mentioned.

LAYA SYSTEM

                  This is inherent rhythm in anything.

GREAT MUSICIANS of India

                Pingala gave the musical notation. Lyrical is just the poetic grandeur (Pallavi) Chandas sastra specifies Gitam, Swarajati, Varnana, Kriti, Padam, Jaavadi, Tillana.

Purandara das who lived in 1484-1564AD, Sri Shaym Sastri of 1762-1827AD, Thyagaraja of 1767-1847 Muthuswami Dhikshitar of 1776-1835 and chatudandi prakashika of 1660AD by venkatamukli gave the 72 melakarta scheme of the Music of ancient India.

The Rabindranath Takur songs some are based on the single string musical instrument that was extensively used by the village girls while accompanying the shepherds’ and other farm workers to tune with the Flute. Many such instruments of different number of strings are even to-date in use among the villagers and roaming artists like Thyagaraja, Ramashastri, and Annamaya composers of kirtanalu. The instrumental and vocal music of Korea has many elements of Indian music, which it received along with the Buddhist invocative and devotional songs and slokas (religious couplets). Along with Buddhism, some Indian musical instruments like the flute (bansi), temples bell (Ghanta), etc., went to the countries of South-East Asia. Even Europe owes certain instruments to India. Two popular European musical instruments namely the flute and violin are believed to be of Indian origin. Though we do not know about the process of transmission of these instruments, however in India the flute (bansi) and the violin (a variant of the Veena) are definitely indigenously Indian. A pointer to the fact that these instruments have been in usage in India since a very long time is that the bansi is associated with Sri Krishna and the Veena with the goddess Saraswati. This apart, in modern times the western musical instruments like the Tambourin and the Tambour are adaptations of the Indian Tambora and Tanpura. The names Tambourin and Tambour are also derived from the word Tambora. The Sarangi, another Indian musical instrument has also found its place in western music. The acceptance of these musical instruments in the west is also evident from the fact that the words Tambora, Sarangi and Tabla are mentioned in the Oxford Dictionary.

Musical Instruments


      The Vanvashi people in the hills such as people of Manipur etc., use a wide range of wind musical instruments made of Bamboo. These are mainly played with the mouth. The Lambang Vanavashis contrive cut-tubes of a small variety of Bamboo to make a flute-like-wind musical instrument called Puleh. This instrument has 4 to 7 holes. The Maring Vanvashis too use a similar musical instrument called Toutri. The Koms call it Theibe. The Thadou tribals cut three tubes of different lengths from the same Bamboo stem and the tubes are separately blown with the mouth to produce different musical notes. The Thadous call such musical instrument Theiphit. The Lambang tribals use a peculiar musical wind instrument called Relru which is a one metre long hollow bamboo tube with an attached projection in the middle, through which one blows with the mouth to produce musical notes. Almost all the tribal groups use a musical instrument made of four to five Bamboo tubes of uneven sizes that are joined together, the smaller tubes being partly inserted into the bigger tubes. The instrument is played like bugle. The Lambang tribals make use of both the hard outer layer or skin of the Bamboo and the pulpy inner layer to make a musical instrument. The necessary length of both the layers is 30 cm. Many of the tribal groups configure fine Bamboo splits or Paya to make an interesting musical instrument that is played with the mouth. The paya must be 15 cm long and 1.5 cm broad.
Devasenathipathi and Stahpathi lineage 10 centuries
I. Lost Wax Process
Preparation of Odiolai :Preparation of the Wax :Getting Ready the Wax Model :Making of the Mould: Late Devasenathipathi & Stahpathi lineage 10 centuries, Strip of Dry Coconut leaf – measurements - Stability of measurements: Marking based on Tala measurements: Crucial Step – Wax model – bees wax, dammar groundnut oil, 4:4:1. Wax mixture heated with hot water and lumps used. Hand used for initial shape – Tala Measurements 2nd Imp step – Special Alluvilial fine soil from river bed- first coat –thin coat with right pressure-no air bubbles – second coat coarse paste soil + sand 2:1.
II. Lost Wax Process
Heating the Mould, Melting and Draining the Wax Preparing the Molten Metal –pouring into the mould Finishing, Engraving and Polishing Installation and Opening of the Eyes Cooling the Mould and Opening it Right proportion – 1: 8 Wax to Metal –panchaloha – crucibleheat – right temp critical – cow dung, special roots of trees :Head of icon is first opened followed by other portions. Sthapatis consider this as birth of the icon Icons cast for worshipping – rituals to be followed for opening of the eyes are elaborate.
Golden era where all forms of art and architecture flourished along with trade
The dynasty (Pallava Chola and Pandya) in southern India had a holistic approach. Their periods in history is considered to be a golden era where all forms of art and architecture flourished along with trade. Society was prosperous. Clock wise from right (b) Stone relief 12th century depicting coronation of Rajendra Chola son of Raja Raja by Siva (c) Dam built by Karikala Chola 1st cent AD (d) Chola Fresco ~ 15th century
The various MUDRAS like the Apana vayu, Samaan vayu, Udana vayu, Vayana vayu, Gyan, Dhyana, and Abhaya Mudras are some of them practiced by a sadhak under the initiation by a Guru. The Dancers also exhibit during the course of their performances some Mudras which can only be understood by a thinker and an enlightened soul. The TALA, PALLAVI and RAGA are essential and the Vedic Hymns are also recited in the several or different forms of poetic renderings. They have an intricate and involved grammar of the Sanskrit language and are also found in other regional languages of India.  Bastar Brass :• Brass is used for making figurines and ornaments • Figures and Ornaments are crafted by Ghadwa, who are the metal casters of Bastar • Lost Wax Technique is used.Ref : Bastar Folk Art (Shrines, Figurines and Memorials) by Michel Postel, Zarine CooperPublished by Franco Indian Research Pvt Ltd. , Mumbai, India. Jhula is unusual in that the artisan has attempted to render a folk figure in a classical fashion Lamp, with a peacock behind the rider, and an elegantly shaped handle. Ornament- comb Knife handle is sometimes cast in brass.Ref : Bastar Folk Art (Shrines,Figurines and Memorials) by Michel Postel, Zarine Cooper Published by Franco Indian Research Pvt Ltd. , Mumbai, India. Scientific Investigations-Radiography Porosities in earlobe of Porosities in the hand 16th century Vishnu icon 13th century Nataraja Porosities observed in the thinner portions of the icon such as the Vastra(s) in the between the legs, earlobes etc.Pore sizes range from 0.1 mm toabout 10 mm in diameter.Ideal fingerprint tool. Scientific Investigations- XRF Results on Bronze icons Chola period Icons were analyzed.(a) The major constituent in all these icons is Cu. The additive elements tin, lead and iron, with varying compositions. (b) CU- 68% to 97%, Sn- 1.72% to 12.79% Pb-1.20% to18.35% and Fe- nil% to 5.26% (except in one specificcase).(c) Change of composition was observed from region toregion within the same icon. This variation was withinabout 10% in general.
Expertise utilised in fabrication of tallest Nataraja gifted by DAE to CERN: Fritj of Capra, founding director of the Center for Ecoliteracy in Berkeley, CA, USA.
ANCIENT MUSIC INSTRUMENTS AND THEIR DESIGNS FOR MUSIC SCALES:
RAMAYANA: composed in Sanskrit by the poet called Valmiki. During this period the whole science of Gandharva music had come into existence. Singing of Jatis was in vogue.  Music was used in religious service, war, festivals, in the courts of kings , in dramas and in daily life of people. References to VENU(FLUTE), SANKHA (CONCH),  BHERI,  DUNDUBHI, MRIDANGAM (PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS)  are there and technical terms such as  kala, matra, samya, pramana, laya, tala were used.
 LALITAVISTARA  gives an account of Buddha’s life and says that as a price he was trained to play the Veena. In one JATAKA story it is said that the Bodhisattva was an excellent musician in his previous life and his name was Guttila.  Songs were sung with the accompaniment of a seven stringed Veena. There are also references to Bheri (Drum), Sankhya (Conch). 
Music also had an honored place amongst the Jains and the name of all the seven notes are attested to in the Sthananga Sutra, an important Jain scripture.

 Tamil books viz., PURANANURU and  PATTUPPATTU  refer to three kinds of drums, the battle drum, the judgement drum and the sacrificial drum. PARIPADAL mentions seven Palai which were the ancient Dravidian modes.  YALA (lute) was the most important instrument of the south.  Some had a thousand strings.  SILAPPADIKARAM  a Tamil epic refers to four varieties of Pans or Ragas, five types of flutes- Bamboo, Sandalwood, Bronze, Red catechu and Ebony. The flute made of horns of various kinds of animals were exhibited recently in Visakhapatnam during 29th-30th June 2011, on Manyam Craftsmanship.
The main theme here is dramaturgy but certain fundamental principles of applied music are also discussed.  BHARATA is believed to be an acrostic word and a name . BHA stood for Bhava or emotion, RA stood for Raga or musical delineation and TA stood for Tala or time cycle. He discussed two fundamental TONAL SYSTEMS - sadja-grama and madhyama-grama which were the foundation of all scales. By an experiment he demonstrates the interval of various notes from one another measured by microtones intervening between them. He also gives Murchhana – scales obtained by the transposition of the key-note.
Contributions of Bharata:  Bharata classifies all instruments into four classes: (1) TATA- stringed instruments- Vina (2) SUSIRA- instruments with holes or wind instruments- flute (3) AVANADDHA- instruments covered with skin or hide- Mridangam (4) GHANA- instruments made of brass or wood used to keep time- cymbals.

Bharat mentions  KUTAPA – ensemble of musical instruments – both stringed and membranophonic. This formed the ancient Indian 'orchestra'.  Bharata gives detailed description of Vina and Flute and playing techniques.  He also gives description of seven kinds of complex Talas and a comprehensive treatment of DHRUVA song.

Flute or Venuganamau, commonly known as the Bansuri is the wind instrument of ancient India and was very common with Lord Krishna and the religious music of the Buddhists. The frescoes of Ajanta and Ellora depicts that this flute was also accompanied in the vocal and instrumental music. It is made of cylindrical bamboo pipe of uniform bore that contains six holes for movement of the fingers and a bigger hole for blowing air.

VEENA: The Saraswathi Instrument of Culture Art and Wisdom of India.

This instrument is, of Brhama creation of Sarswathi Godesse of learning and Vedas origin and, is played by a plectrum placed on the right hand finger or mostly without it. It has a broad stem and six main strings are fastened to wooden pegs fixed to the other end. The pumpkin like pot kept on the left hand side lap is really of a cavity for the proper resonance production from the air. Thus it is a laptop instrument of ancient Indians. The scale adopted is the INTELLECT INDIA since it is distinct and has a really tough thing for the musical ear to capture and nurture it.
Ghatam is a mud pot carefully kneaded and uniformly fired. The mouth of the Ghatam is open and is played with two hands, wrists, fingers and nails. The mouth is pressed against the stomach so that when strokes are given, the air inside is set in vibration and gives a deep tone. The player can produce various volumes and tonal colors by giving the finger strokes at the neck, center and bottom of outer surface.
Tabla, is evolved from the oldest percussion instrument, the damru of Lord Shiva. In the hands of a master, Tabla is capable of producing all patterns of rhythms with well-established time cycles (talas). There are two pieces of Tabla which are generally tuned one octave apart. One is Dayan or the Tabla made of black wood and other is Bayan or the Duggi made of wood, clay or copper. Both are hollowed from inside and covered with skin fastened to leather straps which are stretched over the body of the drums by means of leather braces. These straps are pulled to raise or lower the pitch.
Santoor, which originated from the Vedic Vana Veena, belongs to the Kashmir Valley that is neither seen nor played anywhere else. But today, Santoor is played with all Indian ragas and is very popular with the film musicians. The Vana Veena also had strings and was played with sticks. The modern Santoor is made of a trapezoid wooden box and has thirty bridges and a set of four strings of metal, tuned to the same note and stretches over each pair of bridges. It is played with a pair of flat wooden pieces curved at the striking ends.

Nagaswaram : It is believed that this instrument evolved from the snake charmer’s Pungi. It consists of a wooden mouthpiece into which the player blows the air. This air under pressure is released from the lower end of the gourd through two bamboo or metal pipes. These tubes have a valve that controls the flow of air through the pipes and have holes that control the melody. Nagaswaram often attains a wild beauty and softness and brings out the subtle graces of the Carnatic music.

REVERBRATING SCULPTURES:

The simple temple of Kanaka Durga in Vijayawada has a mention in Bhagavatam that when at the time of rise of the waters of river Krishna to the foot step of Indrakiladhri Mountain that would be the time of a Pralaya. World famous Kondapalli bommalu, about 25km from Vijayawada, consisting of bullock carts, animals, birds, women attired in traditional dresses etc capture the common villagers’ artistic talents using indigenous material. The Amareswaraswamy temple in Amaravathi, the Lakshminarasimhaswamy temple in Mangala Giri, Siva temple in Pedakakani reminds one of INTELLECT INDIA prior to Buddhism all located just 30km away from Vijayawada. Use of tamarind paste and turmeric powder to do metla puja (i.e., adoring the steps) to the Godess Durga or Kali, probably is as ancient as the temples.
Shiva Linga: Gupta, Early 5th century AD
Cave 4, Udayagiri, Madhya Pradesh, India.
This type of linga is known as ekamukha (one-faced, also spelled ekmukha). The rock-cut caves at Udayagiri seem to have been the focus of a complex mixture of Shiva worship (inside), Vishnu worship (outside), sun worship, and astronomical activity including the prediction of monsoons. Udayagiri is also the original site of the famous iron pillar of Chandragupta II which is now in Delhi. The "caves" themselves are quite shallow. Some are mere niches which are open to the outdoors, while others are accessed by small entrances cut into the rock face.

Himachal Pradesh has over 2,000 temples
Himachal Pradesh has over 2,000 temples and monasteries that are centuries old. Of these, 60 are under the supervision of the ASI, while 31 are under the control of the state’s language, art and culture department. The temples with lofty towers dot the skyline. These temples are torchbearers of the glorious heritage of the Tamil speaking region, and are repositories of the splendorous art forms that evolved over several millenniums. One will be delighted to know that Tamil Nadu is known as the Land Of Temples and the major reason behind this is that it endorse more than 30, 000 temples in Tamil Nadu by various dynasties. Reflecting early Dravidian art and culture, Tamil Nadu is characterized by ornamented temples with soaring towers known as Gopurams.

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                              The Meenakshi Temple, Kumari Amman Temple and Morgun temple, each one of them were quite unique but depicting the Indian architecture. The Shilpasashtra also traces the origin of the art to a pious and just king, Vajra who, one day, found himself at the feet of the great sage, Markandya. "Oh, Holy Being," implored the king. "Grant me a boon, such that I may master the art of iconography and erect a bronze idol of myself in the public square.”Knowing the king to be a good man at heart, the sage was inclined to grant him the boon. But before handing him the first lump of metal, Markandya put forth a few searching questions to test the sincerity of the king. "Do you know how to paint"? The sage asked. The king replied in the negative and pleaded that he be taught the skills of painting if that should be a prerequisite to learning sculpture. "In that case, you should know how to dance," insisted Markandya. In the course of this inquisition, King Vajra realized that in order to dance, he needed to learn music and in turn, singing. Effectively, he had to begin with fine-tuning his artistic sensibilities before finding a medium to express his creative urges. Explains Murlidhara another master craftsman in Kerala, "To this day, we teach our students the rudiments of music, dance and painting before initiating them into the intricacies of Bronze Molding. You cannot create a figure until you are familiar with the physical form, the rhythm and fluidity of shapes." The South Indian temple consists essentially of a square-chambered sanctuary topped by a superstructure, tower, or spire and an attached pillared porch or hall (maṇḍapa, or maṇṭapam), enclosed by a peristyle of cells within a rectangular court. The external walls of the temple are segmented by pilasters and carry niches housing sculpture. The superstructure or tower above the sanctuary is of the kūina type and consists of an arrangement of gradually receding stories in a pyramidal shape. Each story is delineated by a parapet of miniature shrines, square at the corners and rectangular with barrel-vault roofs at the centre. The tower is topped by a dome-shaped cupola and a crowning pot and strawniy zadnica.



                                       The Rameswaram Temple of thousand pillars has music ringing tone constructs. Ancient Indians made 'rock music' : Archaeologists have rediscovered a huge rockart site in southern India where ancient people used boulders to make musical sounds. The Kupgal Hill site includes rocks with unusual depressions that were designed to be struck with the purpose of making loud, musical ringing tones. It was lost after its discovery in 1892, so this is the first fresh effort to describe the site in over a century. A dyke on Kupgal Hill contains hundreds and perhaps thousands of rock art engravings, or petro-glyphs, a large quantity of which date to the Neolithic, or late Stone Age (several thousand years BC). Some of it is now at threat from quarrying activities.

The motifs themselves were made by bruising the rocks, presumably with a stone implement. Some of the images are in locations so difficult to reach that the artist must have suspended themselves - or got others to suspend them - from an overhang to make the images.

Modern-day commercial granite quarrying has already disturbed some sections of the hill. A rock shelter with even older rock art to the north of Kupgal Hill has been partially destroyed by quarrying.

"It is clear government intervention will be required to elicit effective protection for the majority of the sites in the [area] if these are not to be erased completely over the course of future years," writes Dr Boivin in Antiquity. Some of the images are in locations so difficult to reach that the artist must have suspended themselves - or got others to suspend them - from an overhang to make the images. She believes that the people who made the motifs and those who went to view them must have been physically fit and agile.

Prehistoric Rock Art :Cave 3, Bhimbetka

                         The "caves" (actually, deep overhangs) of Bhimbetka, near Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh, were decorated with art beginning in the Neolithic period (approximately 8000 BC) and continuing in some caves into historic times. According to a local guide, the paintings in Cave 3 date to 5,000 BC. All Bhimbetka dates in the following pages are quoted as they were recited by this guide, who may have been speaking by rote.
Cave 4, Bhimbetka

                         Date quoted as 8,000 BC. A plentiful herd of different kinds of game is depicted here. Cave 4, Bhimbetka.

              Date quoted as 5,000 BC. This group is from the same cave as on the previous page.
Cave 8, Bhimbetka

                                 Date quoted as 3,000 BC. However, note the horse riders. Aswamedha Yaga is known from the times of Ramayana i.e. it dates back to 17lakh 50000years of Solar Calender. So different kinds of animals and birds knowledge and capacities to talk with them were a part of Divine life and power of INTELLECT INDIA. Saying that some nomadic tribes of the west brought it would be ridiculous an argument in History Theoretical attempts.
Cave 6, Bhimbetka

    BELUR AND HALIBEDU TEMPLES OF ASTOUNDING MAGNANMITY

            From Bangalore one reach them but they stand as testimony eternal of INTELLECT INDIA to admire and get lost in divine wisdom. The each and every piece of architecture here is UNIQUE and the mastery-full of craftsmanship which, cannot and wouldn’t have, any match even with the most advanced and super technologies of Robots and Digital methods of Art and sculpture of Global Villages of the Modern World,  because the INDIA is a divine country.

Characterised by a return to the simplistic and serene art of the past, Hoysala architecture is the distinctive building style developed under the rule of the Hoysala Empire in the region historically known as Karnata, today's Karnataka, India, between the 11th and the 14th centuries. Large and small temples built during this era remain as examples of the Hoysala architectural style, including the Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura. Other examples of fine Hoysala craftsmanship are the temples at Belavadi, Amrithapura, and Nuggehalli. A feature of Hoysala temple architecture is its attention to detail and skilled craftmanship. The temples of Belur and Halebidu are proposed UNESCO world heritage sites. About a 100 Hoysala temples survive today.

The courtyards also take up an old Indian architectural motif whereby the courtyard provides light and air for the rooms directly in this hot climate, and people are able to spend time outside or inside according to the time of day. The courtyard is also the classical symbol of something shared a place where people meet, spend time with each other and live together. This aspect is emphasized in the courtyard for the general public, which is placed immediately inside the entrance and constructed in the form of a Kund, a large area of stone steps. Here people spend their waiting time together almost as if in a state of communal meditation. A dedicated area which (would be completely inconceivable in Western culture) functions as a “think tank” here, with the ambience of waiting and stimulating communal reflection.

Indian architecture reflects its various socio-cultural sensibilities which vary from region to region. Certain areas are traditionally held to be belonging to women. Villages in India have features such as courtyards, loggias, terraces and balconies. Calico, chintz, and palampore, of Indian origin, highlight the assimilation of Indian textiles in global interior design. Roshandans, which are skylights-cum-ventilators, are a common feature in Indian homes, especially in North India.

Column of Heliodorus : 113 BC, Besnagar, Madhya Pradesh


                                           This inscribed Garuda column, in Besnagar near Udayagiri, was erected in honor of Vasudeva (an early name for Vishnu) described by a person named Heliodorus, who was a Bactro-Greek envoy from Gandhara to the court of Vidisha. The fact that the Garuda is missing from the top of the column means it was stolen by British or some western enthusiast who sold to a Museum of the west. The Column stands about 6.5m (21') high. Decoration on the column includes geese, a reed-and-bead pattern, lotus leaves, vegetation, fruit, and garlands. The bell capital is similar to earlier Mauryan examples. Everything here is typical of Indian culture of the time of Mauryan legacy.


                                   A smelting furnace dated 800 BC is found in Naikund (Maharashtra), India. Recent discoveries reveal that iron was known in the Ganga valley in mid second millennium BCE. In the mid-first millennium BCE, the Indian wootz steel was very popular in Persian courts for making swords.
                           Rust-free steel was an Indian invention, and remained an Indian skill for centuries. Delhi's famous iron pillar, dated 402AD, is considered a metallurgical marvel and shows minimal signs of rust. The famous Damascus steel swords, now displayed in museums across Europe, were made from Indian steel imported by Europeans. The acclaimed Sheffield steel in UK was Indian crucible steel. The best brains of European Science worked for decades to learn to reverse-engineer how Indians made Crucible Steel, and in this process, modern Alloy design and physical Metallurgy was developed in Europe. Indian industry was dealt a death blow by the colonial masters who banned the production and manufacture of iron and steel at several places in India, fearing their use in making Swords and other arms.

Dancing Girl of Indus Valley Civilization 
   (2500 BC)
                  
     Fig.26C Dancing Girl of Indus Valley Civilization (2500BC)

           Dancing girl found in Mohenjo Daro –now in National Museum in New Delhi, Earliest Bronze - 10.8 cm long sculpted using the lost wax method …a vivid impression of the young ... girl, her hand on ...-John Marshall,  Excavator at Mohenjo-Daro.


The bronzes of India

Copper available in native form

• Early Chalcolithic Period (5,500 - 4,500BC.)

• Middle Chalcolithic Period (4,500 - 4,000BC.)

• Late Chalcolithic (4,000- 3,000 BC)

Bronze Age in India

Metallurgical process of Lost Wax also known as Madhuchistavidanam in Sanskrit language.

               Marvels of Indian Bronze -Gods Come AliveBaldev Raj Distinguished Scientist and DirectorIndira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research Kalpakkam 603 102, India Institute for South Asia, Tibet and Buddhism ofVienna University , Austria June 15, 2007.

                 Lost wax still enthralls, and is not likely to be lost for another millennium and more. Kumud Mohan recaptures the 8000-year-old fascinating story of Indian bronzes. A slim sixteen-year-old with hair tied up in a stylish crescent-shaped braid behind her head. One arm covered with bangles from shoulder to wrist, placed elegantly on the thigh, the other thrown carelessly akimbo in a sharp, angular bow. One leg pushed forward gracefully in a dancing posture, portraying the epitome of perfection in the elements of art. So, treasured she must be relentlessly shielded from the bad effects of any evil eye. The model of the 4,600-year-old, the dancing girl from Mohenjo-Daro - one of the finest examples of ancient bronzes in the world - is permanently encased in bullet-proof glass at the National Museum, New Delhi. Her exquisite craftsmanship indicates centuries of trial and error that must have proceeded to attain that level of perfection, but the story of the technological progress has been lost to the ravages of time. Metallurgy on the Indian subcontinent is traced back to 6,000 BC at Mehrgarh on the Bolan Pass in Baluchistan. After that, there is no exact evidence of how the technology developed. Metal casting was known in all continents except South America and Australia as early as 3,000 BC, following the wars depicted in Mahabharata and stories of Lord Krishna of the ancient art in India, dating back to 8000BC. Bronze Objects discovered during late chalcolithic period around 3000 BC • The earliest bronze was probably a chance discovery. • Bronze Age, had far-reaching effects developing copper-bronze metallurgy. • Bronze is widely used in making tools and machinery as well as in making other artistic pieces.

                              Well-formed Metal Images are believed to have been crafted and have been discovered at the Harappa civilization sites.  The images were secular, simple and natural to start with. Like those of the dancing girl, birds, animals, chariots or bullock carts in the Indus Valley Civilization. The images that  acquired religious connotations, inspiring Indian artists and craftsmen from different regions to attain unparalleled heights in the of portrayal of the Perfect Form have of course been lost in the excavations and preservation by the then British Raj rulers. The images of Gods and Goddesses created by man were more beautiful, more graceful, more powerful, forever young, and radiating a divine benediction of love, peace, prosperity, protection and serenity.
                              The bronze images were often similar to the stone sculptures in which craftsmen had developed considerable skill from generation to generation. Metallic images, however, were lighter and could be worked upon all sides with greater ease, resulting greater finesse. Also, they were sturdier. Many of these images, described as chala murtis or movable icons (unlike the achala or static ones placed inside the sanctum sanctorum), were transported on chariots during festival processions. On these occasions they were beautifully adorned with clothes and jewelry, giving an opportunity to the old, infirm and the "lower caste" people to pay their homage to the deity. (Tiny rings to facilitate the insertion of rods for transportation can be spotted at the sides of the pedestals of some of the bronzes).  The iconic bronzes in India depict all the major ancient religions: Hinduism (Shaivism and Vaishnavism)

Buddhism and Jainism
                    They received a special impetus during the Gupta-Vakataka period (4th-6th century AD) when ancient texts on iconography texts were codified and royal patronage for the arts reached its zenith. The Gupta idiom, characterized by simplicity, softness, sophistication and spirituality of expression, displayed a refinement of form delineated by soft contours and elegance of posture. These graceful qualities gradually degenerated with time, giving way to greater ornamentation, except later in south India.  Regional variations in iconographic presentation developed in different areas, depending upon the availability of raw material, contemporary inclinations, the skill, imagination and originality of the craftsmen, as also the theoretical formulations of local priests and the tastes of the patrons. The higher brass content in sculptures from Kashmir and Himachal imparted the bronzes with a yellowish tinge.  Cire perdue, or the lost wax process used to cast metal images in India, was described as Madhucchista Vidhana in Shilpashastra, a treatise on craftsmanship. The images cast were both ghana (solid) and sushira (hollow). The image was first styled with bees-wax mixed in the right proportions with castor oil, lamp soot, incense and camphor. Creating the image of a deity raised the social status of the shilpkar or craftsman. So, putting his soul into his effort, he sought to give lyrical expression to his inner music in every stroke. The wax image was thoroughly coated with a solution consisting of fine clay from ant-hills mixed with paddy husk so that it entered every crevice. Next a thicker coat of clay is usually applied with appropriate camouflaged holes, to allow molten wax to flow out later on. Before that, the mould had to dry naturally in the shade to avoid cracking. The dried solid mass of clay was placed in a kiln and once the wax had flowed out, the hole was plugged. When the right temperature was reached, sufficient metal was poured in to completely replace the wax. The piece was shaken vigorously to prevent the formation of air bubbles. After that it was left aside to cool. Finally, the burnt earthen mould was broken to reveal an unfinished image, ready to be cleaned, polished and finished meticulously with fine tools. Since the mould had to be destroyed in every case, the process had to be repeated in all details for every single piece. Thus bronze images made by the lost was process were all unique.

            Cire perdue, the thousands-of-years old metallurgical process devised to cast Indian Bronzes, has not lost its relevance today. It has served as a model for modern processes and is in fact an essential part of both cottage and large scale industries -- including the automobile and aircraft industry.  Bronze is a generic term for non-iron metallic alloys that are sometimes enriched with gold or silver. Amongst Indian bronzes, in the beginning mainly copper with tin was used for making artifacts and iconic images. Later on, the usage of five metals (copper, gold, silver, tin and zinc) came into vogue. The alloy, panchloha, symbolized panchbhutian, the five basic elements - earth, water, ether, air and fire - denoting the omnipresence of God and Nature.

Copper Alloys
  
The first major alloying agent to copper was arsenic (in the Middle East)

• Copper-arsenic ores were widely available in Egypt, and could be smelted directly to make a copper alloy
• Alloying also achieved by mixing arsenic-rich ores with copper-rich ores during smelting
• Artifacts from 3000 BC contained up to  7% arsenic in copper 7% arsenic in copper.

Zinc distillation
                 
              A major breakthrough in the history of metallurgy was India's discovery of zinc distillation  whereby the metal was vaporized and then condensed back into pure metal.

            Brass in Taxashila has been dated from third century BC to fifth century AD. A vase from Taxashila is of particular interest because of its 34.34 per cent zinc content and has been dated to the third century BC (Marshall 1951: 567-568). Recently two brass bangles belonging to the Kushana period have been discovered from Senuwar (Uttar Pradesh, India). They are also made of metallic zinc as they have 35 per cent zinc content (Singh 2004: 594). Experts are unsure if this zinc was made by distillation process.
There is evidence of zinc ore mining at Zawar in Rajasthan from the fifth century BC, but unfortunately there is lack of evidence of regular production of metallic zinc until the eighth century AD. The earliest confirmed evidence of zinc smelting by distillation is dated back to 840 +110 from Zawar (Craddock et al. 1985, 1989). This is the earliest date for zinc smelting and production of metallic zinc by distillation process anywhere in the world.

                    Europeans learnt it for the first time in 1743, when know-how was transferred from India. Until then, India had been exporting pure zinc for centuries on an industrial scale. At archeological sites in Rajasthan, retorts used for the distillation are found in very large numbers even today.

              Once Zinc had become separated into a pure Metal, Alloys could be made with the required Zinc component to provide the required properties. For instance, strength and durability increase with higher Zinc component. Also, Copper Alloys look like Gold when the Zinc component is higher than 28 per cent. Most early Brass objects found in other countries had less than 10 per cent Zinc component, and, therefore, these were not based on Zinc distillation technology.

Alloys that exceed 10 per cent Zinc are found earliest in Taxashila in the fourth century BCE. 

                 However, while Taxashila was distilling and manufacturing Zinc on a small scale, it was in Zawar, Rajasthan, where this first became industrialized on a large scale. Zinc mines have been found in Dariba (11th century BC), Agucha (Sixth century BC) and Zawar (Fifth century BC). These mines have pots and other manufacturing tools of these dates, but the mining could be even older. Three important items are now proven about the history of Zinc metallurgy:
(i)                 Zinc distillation and metallurgical usage was pioneered in India
(ii)               Industrial Scale production was pioneered in Rajasthan
(iii)             England transferred the technology of Zinc from India in 1736. British Metallurgy documents do not mention Zinc at all prior to this transfer.

Tin
             
                       In western civilizations, Bronze, an alloy of Copper with Tin was of exceptional importance, since it was used to make as learnt from the 1000AD and 1100AD century Indian warriors that Gun Metal, Armor, Machinery and the Massive Bells. Besides being harder than Copper, Bronze could be melted more easily and therefore cast into desired shapes of craftsmanship spiritual universe art forms for temples, rather than an alloy of Copper and Tin used for Armor and Gun-Powder culture. Bronze was comparable in strength and durability with Iron. Its historical replacement by Iron for making tools, weapons and machinery was more because of the easy availability of Iron, rather than any inherent advantage of Iron over Bronze. The pleasant patina associated with ancient Bronzes is actually a protective layer formed by the action of salts, moisture and particulate matter present in the atmosphere. Lacquering is not a desirable method for preserving precious Bronzes as it cracks after a while leading to fungal infection and further erosion. The best solution for preserving Bronzes is to keep them in a dry, cool and clean atmosphere, and to avoid drastic changes in temperature and light.
Of all the classical arts that have survived time, the oldest in India is said to be the tradition of sculpting in Bronze. It predates even stone and wood carving and can be traced back to a long-forgotten epic called the Matsyapurana. 

                      During the Indus Valley Civilization (3000 BC), Bronze carvings became very popular, both for religious offerings and decorative purposes. One of the most striking Archaeological finds from the ruins of Mohenjo-Daro (in present-day Pakistan) was an intricately-carved Bronze figurine of a Dancing Girl. The technique and skills that went into creating that figurine have been sustained to this day by descendants of those early craftsmen. Most of them are scattered about the many temple towns of South India and specialize in making Hindu Deities like Ganesha, Shiva, Saraswati and Radha-Krishna. "We religiously follow the dictates of the Shilpashastra," informs Raghu Krishnan, a Master Sculptor near the Meenakshi temple at Madurai. "It is the oldest known treatise on iconography, which not only tells you the various methods and processes of sculpting, but also suggests scope for experimentation."

                            The Bronzes of India defy age, looking as fresh today as they would have, just out of the sculptor’s mould, many centuries ago!  Indian Bronzes speak volumes on the expertise of an art form that was born very long ago and still holds the strings of continuity in the story of Indian tradition. The antiquity of the art can be traced back to the epic called the Matsyapurana. Later, amongst the findings in the ruins of Mohenjo-Daro, came the discovery of the figure of the Dancing Girl - further reinstating the fact that sculpture along with the use of Metal Alloys was well known to people even then. Of course, all along one was also equipped with an ancient detailed treatise on iconography, the Shilpashastra. Yet all this adds to the exciting mystique of traditions when one finds there is no definite answer to the question of when or at what point of time the experimentations into this form of artistic expression actually began. Shilpashastra tells this small story that has come to capture the quintessence of this art.

                      There once lived a king called Vajra. He was a pious and devout man. One day he found himself standing at the feet of sage Markandeya with a request. Oh! Great sir, grant me but one wish begged the king. Teach me the art of iconography so that I may make my own idol for worship, using devotion as yet another input. Though the sage appreciated King Vajra’s sentiment, he was forced to ask him a few questions before handing him the first lump of Metal. Do you know how to Paint? The sage asked the king. The king did not know painting, but requested that he be taught the art if it was a prerequisite to learning sculpture. But for that you need to know how to Dance, instead the sage. To learn Dancing, in turn the king was required to have a rudimentary knowledge of Instrumental Music which needed a foundation in Vocal Music. So the king had to begin with the Octaves to be able to pour his sensibilities into any other material and make a form! It is no surprise, therefore, that the beauty of Indian Bronze lies in their efficient capturing of all these artistic forms within the figure created.

                    So close is the association that the different disciplines also share certain common terminologies like the word tala. To a sculptor tala means one measure. To a Musician or a Dancer it refers to one beat. This unified aspect of culture is more than evident when one sees the fluidity of movement in these static figures. With Shiva (one of the Hindu Trinity) symbolizing the cosmic forces of nature, Dancer becomes the epitome of life’s rhythmic motion. The sthapathi or Craftsman seeks to capture this motion in Bronze. The contours of the legs, the arms and the whole body of a standing figure have so much semblance to reality that one can perceive not only the previous stance but also the following one: a fractional movement captured from the fluidity of one pose to another seemingly with a lens of an exposure of 1/500th of a second! The evolved technique and the material used in no small measure contributed to the magnificence of the end product in these Bronze Figurines.

                     The conventions, rituals and instructions of measurements etc. are the same old traditional ones which have come down through the ages. While Bronze Iconography is age-old, it was only around the 10th century AD that there was large scale revival in the practice of this art form. Subsequently, within a few centuries, it reached its zenith. At this time, there was a strong religious fervor in the southern Indian states following the waning of the influences of Buddhism and Jainism. The Chola reign saw many temples being constructed. The presiding deity was constructed in granite. But there was a need for more idols which could be carried around the village or town on festive occasions. These figures were called Utsavamurthis. Granite was too heavy for this purpose and so use of the Alloy of Five Metals symbolizing the Five elements was adopted.

                         The Metals are 1.Copper, 2.Brass, and 3.Lead with a little bit of 4.Gold and 5.Silver. So effectively was this combination of Metals chosen that they even reflected the Figure’s vitality? The process of making these idols is known as cire perdue or madhu chistam. Generally, deities are made from Bronze. The favorite ones being Lord Shiva, Ganesha, the elephant faced god, Lord Rama, the incarnation of Vishnu and Parvati, Lord Shiva’s consort. These are, of course the more popular ones. However, there are innumerable variations upon the same theme which capture every myth that is associated with the Deities. After the Cholas, the degree of finesse seemed to fade away and was never carried into subsequent generations but newer styles evolved, almost as beautiful. The tradition remained unbroken and just as cherished. It is this aspect that provokes immense wonder, wonder at the fascinating degree of perfection which is associated with the Universal Definition of Beauty.

                         Significantly, Bronze is used only as a ‘base metal’ and more often than not, has to be combined with small portions of Copper, Lead, Gold and Silver. Together, they represent the five elements (earth, air, water, fire and space) of nature and are considered essential, especially while creating religious icons. The sculptors adopt a process of molding, known as madhu chistam, whereby basic models are created out of bees wax and transferred onto clay die. Into this, molten Metal is poured before finishing touches are chiseled and hammered out. The closest parallel to this process is the western cire perdue.  "The evolved technique and the material used in no small measure contribute to the magnificence of the end product in these Bronze Figurines. The conventions, rituals and measurements are the same as the old traditional ones which have come down through the ages."  Apart from beauty and durability, Bronze Iconography owes its popularity to the Chola kings who ruled southern India during the 10th and 11th centuries A.D. They brought about a large-scale revival of this art form with the construction of hundreds of temples across the Deccan plateau. The impetus provided by them is being felt to this day.
The Pallava and Chola dynasties witnessed the flowering of the Bronze casting technique that was extant from the Indus Valley period in India. The Chola Bronzes (850-1275 AD) are unparalleled in their depiction of facile expression, the suppleness of the human form and its flowing movements. The famous images of Shiva Nataraja, Parvati, Kodanda Rama and Navaneeta Krishna have perennially delighted devotees and aroused their religious fervor. Besides being votive images, aesthetically, the Chola Bronzes mark a phase in the development of Indian sculpture that is simply magnificent in form and style. The distinctive Chola style emerged during the reign of Aditya Chola (870-906 AD).  The Bronzes of this period are characterized by display of supple body with flowing contours and an oval face.

The world-renowned Bronze images of Nataraja, the dancing form of Lord Shiva, appeared for the first time during the reign of Parantaka I, Aditya Chola's son. The Chola bronzes after 975 AD are divided into two separate groups, the Sembiyan Mahadev School and Raja Raja School, each having its own characteristic but both developing simultaneously. The Bronzes of the Sembiyan School are slender and tall and the figures are adorned by intricate ornamentation. The Konerirjapuram Temple at Thanjavur contains several Bronzes of this school. The Bronzes of the Raja Raja School are "more masculine and majestic and radiate a sense of power and strength, both physical and spiritual". The Vrishvahana Bronze image belongs to this school.

                 About, the imposing carvings in and around the Temples, and their inspired sculptured pagodas, walls and the pillars, one German visitor has recorded that these sculptures generate an immense sense of feeling on the onlookers, to go round them and get a full feel of not only their three spatial dimensions effects, but as well the sense of time, belonging to them. That was a rich tribute, to the hand-to-hand craftsmanship, of sculptors in India. In fact the sculpture craftsmen of India were of the strong faith that unless to be sculptured figure within the rock, granted permission in a spiritual-way, and showers its blessings, they could not have undertaken the carving work.

                         In recent time a writer by name Shivaji in Andhra Bhoomi news paper dated April 14th, 2011 wrote that the sculptures made by the Indian Craftsman exhibits Animation effects. This sense of moving figures within the set of sculptures is unique on the Globe and testifies unequivocally the strength and nobleness of INTELLECT INDIA. He mentions that one could visit places like Ghantasala, Jagayyapeta, Guntupalli, chandavaram, tripuranthakam, goli, and Phanigiri to see these sculptures dating from 3rd BC to 3rd AD. The sculptures demonstrate the Animation of a long jump and as well a high jump feeling among the onlookers. With as little money as possible and a pocketful of groundnuts are enough to go round and enjoy the several of the graciousness of the sculptures in and around Guntur, Krishna and Nalgonda districts. Elliot and Dubrial English people have shifted the Best to England and others to Madras Museums. Many sculptures have been transported away in trains from Macherla, Guntur, and Nagarjunakonda. These have depicted the then existing village life with not only geometrical design perfection and fineness but as well they have incorporated the spiritual dance details of what is known as ragam, talam and laya. The flying Sarees and the Dress material, as also the light and dark shadow effects of optical vision and illusion have been superbly carved by the Craftsman. The sculptures depict the sense of symmetry in the figures and of several dimensions simultaneously including that of sense of time.

British Raj

                            The technology, designs and even raw cotton were initially imported from India while, in parallel, India's indigenous textile mills were outlawed by the British. India's textile manufacturers were de-licensed, even tortured in almost all cases of plundering, inhuman approach, treachery, over-taxed and regulated, to 'civilize' them into virtual extinction. Textiles, Bronze alloys, Gold, Silver ornaments, Ivory work etc and most importantly Steel, and as well the idly making and rice cooking steam engine processes, also the groundnut oil driven diesel wheel power for pounding rice between two massiv round rock structures, were the mainstays of the British Industrial Revolution. All these had their origins in India. The Ahmedabad textile museum is a great resource for scholarly material.
                          Unlike this, British Raj was very Calculative and Adopted a meticulously executed system of cold poison, to completely shatter the very roots of the Indian culture and honesty. Hand-to-hand handed over, traditional formula work culture, and the skills, in all walks of traditional living in India has been completely destroyed by these two foreign invader rulers and looters of wealth in India. It was during this period, the left traces of the extraordinary skills of the craftsmanship of India, after the Muslim rulers’ suppression, have been totally destroyed very systematically.

                  In its place an argument and vicious thought against, the mouth-to-mouth culture of Veda culture and the local powerful and honest administration as dominated by a sect of individual groups has been put forward as the divisive force in India. This has yielded rich dividends to propagate, a divide rule policy, among the people of India. A country wide spread with poor communication systems and as well with linguistic differences the British Raj has acquired a firm foot of treachery on the rich Nation.

                 They also theorized that INTELLECT INDIA has either migrated as an Aryan race, or arrived from the African land by way of settlers in ancient times. Bandwagon scientists of western influence have become blind to the Intellect India. Today projection is that the likely disappearance of the Ganga Glacier of the Himalaya Mountains, which creates a devastivation effect on almost 8% world population of India, living around the River Ganga valley region that strongly believes and practices Hindu Dharma way of living.

Yamuna (River Goddess) : Gupta, Early 5th century AD : Cave 5, Udayagiri, Madhya Pradesh, India.


                                         The figure is Yamuna, the personification of the Jumna river, holding an emblematic water vessel and standing on her Vahana (a vehicle) (nearly invisible) tortoise, in the middle of the waters. The water is skillfully carved to indicate her partial submersion. Ganga / Yamuna pairs also appear on each of the two sides of the niche.
Mount Abu

Wondrously carved in marble, the Dilwara Jain temples in Mount Abu (Rajasthan) enshrine various Jain 'Tirthankaras'. Constructed out of white marble from Arasoori Hill, near Ambaji, 23 km from Abu Road, the temples are an outstanding example of Jain temple architecture. Of the five shrines in this group, four are architecturally significant. They are built with white marble stones. Each has a walled courtyard. In the centre of the courtyard is the shrine with the image of the deity, Rishabhdev. Around the large courtyard, there are numerous small shrines, each housing a beautiful image of the tirthankaras with a series of elegantly carved pillars from the entrance to the courtyard. The ministers of the Solanki rulers of Gujarat had constructed all these temples during 11th and 13th centuries A.D. Vimal Vasahi is the oldest temple, which has been dedicated to Adinath, the first Jain tirthankara. Vimal Shah, minister of the then Solanki ruler of Gujarat, built it in the year 1031 A.D. The special feature of this temple is it's ceiling which is Circular in Eleven richly carved Concentric Rings. The Central Ceiling of the temple is adorned with magnificent carving and it culminates into an Ornamented Central Pendant. The pendant of the dome tapers down forming a drop or point, like a lotus flower. This is an astonishing piece of work. It symbolizes the divine grace coming down to fulfill human aspirations. Figures of sixteen Vidya Devis (goddesses of knowledge) are carved on the ceiling. The other Dilwara temples are the Luna Vasahi, Vastupala and Tejapala, named after the ministers of the then Vaghela ruler of Gujarat who built them in 1230 A.D. Inspite of being plain and austere on the outside, the interiors of all these temples are covered with delicate carvings. Its most notable feature is that the brilliant intricacy and delicacy of the marble carving is so fine that in places the marble becomes almost transparent. Dilwara temples are one of the best examples of craftsmanship, the genius of carving out so brilliant and intricatea shape out of a block of stone, such that it almost comes to life! The temple is a tourist's paradise and a meditative sanctum for the devotees.


Gingee
                   


                      Gingee in Puducherry  is one of the finest forts in South India. Its origin dates back to the 9th century when it was a stronghold of the Cholas but the fort as it looks today is the handiwork of the Vijaynagara kings who made it an impregnable citadel. The fortified city is built on the seven hills, the most prominent of which are Krishnagiri, Chandragiri and Rajagiri.

                   Surrounded by high walls, it was so strategically planned as to make enemies think twice before they attacked. Strongly guarded by a triple gate beyond which lay equally heavily guarded courts, the summit of the Rajagiri could not have been easily attained by any of the enemies. Today, the summit can be reached after a two hour climb, still a strenuous task, but well worth the effort.

                  A place of great historic interest, Gingee, no longer an unsurmountable citadel, is one of the most interesting centres on the Tamil Nadu tourist circuit.
                  
             The Hill Palace, the official residence of the Kochi royal family, is today the largest archaeological museum in Kerala. Built in 1865, the palace complex consists of 49 buildings in the traditional architectural style of Kerala, sprawled over 52 acres of beautifully landscaped terraced land which houses a deer park and facilities for horse riding. Numerous species of flora including rare medicinal plants grow here. On display in the full-fledged Ethno-archaeological museum are oil-paintings, murals, sculptures in stone and manuscripts, inscriptions, coins, belongings of the Kochi royal family and royal furniture including the sinhasan (throne).

                  Also exhibited are over 200 antique pieces of pottery and ceramic vases from Japan and China, Kudakkallu (tomb stone), Thoppikkallu (hood stone), menhirs, granite, laterite memorials, rock cut weapons from the stone ages, wooden temple models, plaster cast models of objects from Mohanjodaro and Harappa of the Indus Valley Civilisation. The museum also houses a gallery of contemporary art.
               
                                      Fig.28C Gingee Museum

                                 Kye Monastery is situated 12 kms. north of Kaza and serves the western population of Spiti in the Lahaul & Spiti District of Himachal Pradesh. It is the oldest and biggest monastery of the valley and located at (4116 m) above Kye village. It houses beautiful scriptures and paintings of Budha and other goddesses. Lamas practice dance, sing and play on pipes and horns. Many Lamas get religious training here. It has murals and books of high aesthetic value. This monastery is an outstanding example of the monastic architecture, which developed during the 14th century in the wake of the Chinese influence. The Mongols plundered the monastery in the middle of the 17th century. In the 19th century, it again suffered three brutal attacks. The successive trails of destruction and patch-up jobs have resulted in a haphazard growth of box-like structures, and the complex now resembles a defensive fort.



RECENT ATTEMPTS

One would be happy to note that the handicrafts received a boost of trade with western countries in metal ware, wood ware and imitation imitation jewellery. This sector employs about 76 lakh people. Now about seven main cities like Ferozabad (as a glassware centre) and Varanasi (for zari and zari products) would receive 100crores to skill development and up gradation of facilities. They are expected to meet the heavy demand during the Christmas season.

Sanskrit and other literature of India

            Nadabrahman has an involved concept that it cannot be equated with merely the sound, but invoking the Veda mantras and, the chanting of these is not merely just the invocatory words. The subtle aspect of it if properly resonated, the hidden wheels of the universe in a human with all the seed letters of the language of realization that unifies the individual with the supreme universe. These known as chakras when invoked give the infinite energy that can be channelized for good deeds.

Even prior to the Muslim invasion of India, the Buddha cult of 2500BC most probably, has most successfully diminished, the influence of the ancient Brahmi scripts of regional literature in the South India and Devanagari Sanskrit literature of North India and its strong hold on the people of India, Cambodia, Japan, China, Sri Lanka and other neighboring Asian countries. I am not biased but the Buddha cult has only left a human of utmost moving away from birth and denounced to lead a family life. Swami Vivekananda also realized that the Buddhist theology left Indian people as defenseless and unconcerned of their Nation. There are several universal truths that have been merely expounded by Buddhists, which only the knowledge based society thinker, can adopt faithfully, for a renunciation of the worldly life.
        
             The incredible Advaitham Philosopher of the Kerala state in India, has solely and singularly, revived the INTELLECT INDIA. Sri Adi Sankaracharya has established the four centers of his scholastic thought and the teachings. Essentially he has revived the Vedas and rejuvenated source of Inspiration, for the people of Bharat. Thus once again, he gave a chance of Excellence and Magnanimity of spiritual Wealth and spinal card back-bone unity of the Country.

Adi Sankaracharya


On Sunday, Vaisakha Sukla Panchami in the constellation and Lagna of Dhanus in the year Nandana, a son was born to Sivaguru and he was named ‘Sankara’ by his father in 2593 Kali (which corresponds to 3102-2593=509B.C) "When we calculate the figures Rishi = 7. Bana = 5, Bhumi = 1 and Martyakshau = 2, in the reverse order and reckon the total number of years in the Yudhishtira Saka (of the Jains), we arrive at the year Tamraksha (Raktakshi) as the year of Sankara’s death."
            
Hence Sankara's Niryana works out to 2157+468 = 2625 Kali or 3102-2625=477 B.C.; 
  (or 2634 B.C. - 2157 =) 477B.C.


The chronological table of Kamakoti clearly gives the following dates among many,  
                               
                                   1. Establishment of Peetha 482 B.C
                               2. Sri Sankaracharya, First Acharya, occupied peetha for 6 years,     demise: Raktakshi year, Vaisakha month, Sukla-Paksha, 11th day, 476 B.C.

            According to most of the texts, Adi Sankaracharya (686 – 718BC) was born as the son of Namboothiri Brahmin couple, Shivaguru and Ar in a place called Kalady, which is a small village in Kerala, India. People are of the say that, this great soul survived for only thirty two years. It is said that, Sankaracharya was born after many years of his parents' marriage. His parents had offered prayers to Lord Shiva at the Vadakkunnathan temple for the birth of child.

There is an interesting legend associated with the birth of Adi Sankaracharya. It is believed that, Lord Shiva appeared in the dreams of Sankara's parents and asked them to make a choice, whether they want to have a mediocre child who lives a long life or a precocious child who would not survive for a longer period of time. Thus, they mutually decided to go in for the second option. Later, a son was born to them, who was named Shankara. Shankara is a Sanskrit word, which means bestowed of goodness. Adi Sankaracharya lost his father when he was very young. When he was five years old, he began his student life. He always wanted to lead the life of a monastic.

Adi Sankaracharya Philosophy

Adi Sankaracharya had a strong faith in the philosophy of Advaita Vedanta. Advaita is a term which basically means identity of the self (which is more commonly referred to as 'Atman') and the Whole (Brahman). Adi Sankaracharya took the initiative of promoting the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta, which is based on the concept of non duality. The beliefs & philosophies of Adi Sankaracharya formed the base for the Smarta tradition or Smartism. Adi Sankaracharya founded four Mathas, one at Sringeri in Karnataka in the south and the others at Jyotirmath (Joshimath) in Uttarakhand in the north, Puri in Orissa in the east and Dwaraka in Gujarat in the west. For each Math, he gave responsibility to one of his disciples. Sankaracharya, a well known spiritual leader is also known as Sankara Bhagavat which, means 'teacher at the feet of God.' He deserves the entire credit for promoting the principles of Advaita Vedanta. He preached the concept of union of soul, i.e. Atman and Brahman. He traveled to several parts of the country for propagating the Advaita Vedanta philosophy through various discourses and debates.

At Ujjain, Sankaracharya was opposed by a Kapalika ascetic. As stated in Shankardigvijaya he disputed with the Acharya, urging the sanctity of the practices of Kapalikas. He was defeated in argument, but he and his sect had to be put down.  King Sudhanwa, who is said to have accompanied the Acharya from Malabar and the Viceroy of Ujjain under the king of Kanauj, co-operated with Sankaracharya in finally getting rid of this horrid form of Shiva worship. At this time, there lived at Ujjain a learned man, Bhutta Bhaskar.  He wrote a commentary on all the Vedas. He was an advocate of religion of sacrifice. Sankaracharya had a discussion with him and he was induced to be the follower of the achary.

There are several Philosophies that have been expounded after Srisankaracharya, among them notable are the Ramanjuacharya and the Madhvacharya. These later Philosophers propogated Dwaitha and Visishta advaith Philosophies. Dwaitha believes in the Indivdual as different from the Creator of the Universe while the Visistha adwaitha preaches that the Individual and the Universal are some how linked with each other.

PRANA: This is a very powerful concept. That every living being posses it by the combines of five elements Fire, Vayu, Akasha, Jala, and Prdvi is an accepted fact of Indians. This is regarded as a force in the Universe all pervading and takes also physical forms as destined or created by some divine power. To a great surprise they associated what is called “pranic shakthi” for every physical object such as stone, rock, mountain, boulders, as well for plants, animals, a piece of wood or the crestures myriad o the universe.
A preliminary introductory book featuring the details of the scriptures of Veda wealth in India, has been recently brought out by Shri Dhurvasula Bhaskara Murthy (Visakhapatnam, Phone. 08912549687).


                             Fig.30C. Buddha 2500BC: India Before History Destoyed

            If Buddha dates to 2500BC then what was India before his advent is destroyed, so people do not know. The Buddha scripts have a close relation with the common man language of Prakrit in India especially in the Coastal Andhra Pradesh and the Sri Lanka. The grammar of then spoken language may be found contained within the epics of the Bhuddhism. This may be due to the Collapse of the Kalinga Empire of Telugu, Kannada and the Rashtrakutta regions just below Vindhya mountain range. It was only the First World War, fought at Ranastala near Srikakulum and Visakhapatnam that the destruction of the relatively recent (i.e.1500BC-to 4AD) culture of India, due to the foreign traders intrigue.


Note: Dr D. V. N. Sarma asserts that Ramayana epic dates back to one lakh fifty thousand years ago when heavy machinery was used by them to build the Rama Sethu. (See trusciencetrutechnology@blogspot.com, January 2007)

The Ajanta Ellora caves

Cave temples became prominent throughout western India, incorporating various unique features to give rise to cave architecture in places such as Ajanata and  Ellora.

PAINTING

Lintel: Cave 2, Ajanta



                                   This lintel surmounts the entrance to the right portico shrine. It portrays a naga king flanked by his family and yaksha attendants. Paint remains on the ceiling; the lintel, too, was probably painted.

Bracket Figures

Cave 16, Ajanta

                             These two bracket figures from cave 16, another late-5th century painted vihara, illustrate the care which was lavished upon even the least significant decorations. Left, a flying couple (the woman's breasts are decorously covered, rather unusually for this type of figure). Right, a gana.
                          
                          The very first works of visual art created in the Indian sub-continent were primitive cave or rock paintings. Many are assumed to exist, but the largest numbers of discoveries are in Central India, on sandstone rock shelters within a hundred mile radius around Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh. These paintings are dated at around 5500 B.C. i.e. they are 1500 years old. Some of these paintings have been overlaid with later paintings and graffiti.

The paintings generally depict animals, in scenes such as hunting. Human figures are also shown with bows and arrows, and swords and shields. The colors used an intricately carved pillar at Ellora in Maharashtra dating back to the 7th century, are made up of natural minerals and are in various shades of many colors like red and orange and surprisingly includes black as well. These paintings are the forerunners of the frescos of a later age which are seen at Ajanta, Ellora and elsewhere in India. We are told by the literary sources that the art of painting was practiced.

In the Buddhist texts, elaborate palaces of kings and houses of the wealthy are described as being embellished with wall paintings. But actual evidence about this art is lost. How this art could have been can be guessed from the paintings on stone surfaces found at Ajanta and Ellora which are said to have been done in around 400 A.D. (some say in the 1st century BC).

These paintings at Ajanta and Ellora depict Buddhist tales from the Jatakas. Though the paintings are today 1500 years old, the paint has not only retained its color but also much of its luster. British culprits have removed some paintings by pulling them out from the surface of the rocks using adhesive coated cloth and canvases.

The technique of painting has been thus described by a student of Indian Art, ³The surface of the stone was first prepared by a coating of potter's clay, mixed variously with cow dung, straw, and animal hair. Once this was leveled to a thickness of half an inch to two inches, it was coated with a smooth fine white lime plaster which became the actual painting surface. On the still-damp wall, the artist first laid out his composition with a red cinnabar line and then defined the subjects with an undercoat of grey or terre verte.

This was followed by the addition of local colors, and once the whole wall was completely colored, a brown or black line restated the drawing to finish the composition. A last burnishing with a smooth stone gave it a rich lustrous surface. The colors which were natural and water soluble, consisted of purple, browns, yellow, blue, white, green, red, orange and black etc."

Thus it is evident that the technique of painting had developed to an advanced level. The monumental bull was carved in marble in the 3rd century B.C. It stood on a column built by Emperor Ashoka, which was inscribed with Buddhist edicts. of sophistication due which the paintings could survive for 1500 years.

Though the colors used are supposed to have been derived from minerals and vegetables they had been treated to last long. The above description also illustrates how, complicated procedures of preparing the surface to be painted had evolved in India.

This technique of painting had also spread to central Asia and South-east Asia. Some strains of Indian painting can even be identified in western church paintings and mosaics. Indian influence is clearly evident in the paintings at Bamiyan in Afghanistan and in Miran and Domko in Central Asia. Not only do these paintings depict the Buddha but also Hindu deities such as Shiva, Ganesha and Surya. In Italy and other western nations the Indian paintings have found a place in those days.
                         

                                  
                       The Ajanta Ellora caves are fine specimens of ancient rock-cut cave temples. Located in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra, the Ajanta Ellora caves are UNESCO-designated World Heritage Sites. Even though Ajanta and Ellora are often mentioned in the same breath, the cave temple clusters in these locations are different from each other in many aspects. While the caves in Ajanta are primarily Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhist caves, the Ellora cave temples belong to Hindu, Buddhist and Jain religions. There are variations in the architectural and sculptural dimensions as well. In comparison to the Ajanta caves embellished with a profusion of intricate paintings and sculptures, the Ellora caves are of a mundane variety drawing inspiration from the Vajrayana school of Buddhism. The Ajanta caves remained hidden from public knowledge until a unit of British soldiers from the Madras Army stumbled upon them in 1819 during a hunting expedition. In contrast, the Ellora caves, due to their location on the ancient north- south trade route or the dakshinapatha, had served as a refuge for traders, priests and pilgrims who plied the route to the western ports. In fact, the Kailash was used for worship until the 19th century.

Ajanta Caves Architecture and Ajanta 

Paintings

The colors used an intricately carved pillar at Ellora in Maharashtra dating back to the 7th century, are made up of natural minerals and are in various shades of red and orange. The rock-cut Ajanta Caves are renowned masterpieces for their unique architecture and the profusion of sculptures and paintings. The walls and ceilings of the Ajanta Caves are chiseled with exquisite carvings and paintings that chronicle the life of Lord Buddha.


The Ajanta caves are treasure troves of exquisite paintings that depict scenes from Jataka tales and the life of Lord Buddha. Beautiful murals adorning the walls, ceilings and the pillars bear testimony to the versatility of ancient artistes. 

Ajanta Caves 

Nestled amidst a lush green landscape, the Ajanta Caves are ancient Buddhist caves hewn out of basalt rock formations. These caves are located at the Lenapur village in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra state.

Ellora Caves
           
The Ellora caves represent a unique synthesis of Buddhist, Jain and Hindu cave temples; all scooped out of the vertical face of the Charanandri hills. Located in the Velur village of the Aurangabad district in Maharashtra, the Ellora cave complex is home to 34 cave temples and monasteries.

Kailash Temple 

            The crown jewel among the Ellora caves, the Kailash temple epitomizes the zenith of ancient rock-cut architecture. Also known as the Cave 16, the Kailash temple is an awe-inspiring edifice with its massive proportions and exquisite carvings. The Ellora caves represent a unique synthesis of Buddhist, Jain and Hindu cave temples; all scooped out of the vertical face of the Charanandri hills. Located in the Velur village of the Aurangabad district in Maharashtra, the Ellora cave complex is home to 34 cave temples and monasteries. Out of these, 12 are Buddhist, 17 Hindu and 5 Jain caves. Ellora caves have been declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. Most of the caves were built between the 5th century and 10th century.  The Buddhist caves date back to the fifth and seventh centuries and are the oldest caves in the Ellora cave complex. Most of these multi-storied structures, equipped with living quarters, sleeping quarters, kitchens, served as Viharas or monasteries for Buddhist monks. The cave 10 is the most famous of the lot and enshrines an impressive 15 feet statue of Buddha seated in a preaching pose. The Hindu caves were built in the beginning of the 7th century and are remarkable for their creation by scooping rock from top to bottom. Of these, the Kailasanatha temple is a veritable architectural marvel for the sheer complexity involved in carving the massive structure from a single rock. The Jain caves are the most recent of the Ellora caves.

The Science of Life

                                   The magnetism of Kerala is also due to Ayurveda, a magnificent Ancient Science of India, and a unique health care system that was established in India in around 600 BC. Ayurveda is an indispensable branch of medicine, a complete naturalistic system that depends on the diagnosis of the body's humors to achieve the right balance the unique health care system that Kerala endorses. Since most of the resorts in Trivandrum offer Ayurveda treatment, no one would have a problem in registering oneself. One of them is Somatheeram-Ayurveda-Beach-resort.

The Treatment

            The Indian emperor Ashoka (rule: 273—232 BCE) established a chain of hospitals throughout the Mauryan empire by 230 BCE. One of the edicts of Ashoka (272—231BCE) reads: 
             
             "Everywhere King Piyadasi (Asoka) erected two kinds of hospitals, hospitals for people and hospitals for animals. Where there were no healing herbs for people and animals, he ordered that they be bought and planted." Ashoka is   grandson of Chandhra Gupta Maurya. And Maurya kings were students of the Great University, Takshashila located now in Pakistan, Rawalpindi state and recognized as world’s heritage site.

                   Almost all the Ayurveda centers offered seven common therapies for the comprehensive self-rejuvenation. These were Abhyanga, Elakizhi, Njavarakizhi, Pizhichil, Udhwardhanam, Dhara and Nasyam. The doctors and therapist in the resort assert that Ayurveda is more effective in monsoon season as the atmosphere remains dust free and cool, opening the body pores to maximum, making it more receptive to herbal oils and therapy. It is able to resolve anxiety and stress related disorders as well as chronic fatigue syndromes.  Kerala is rich in mythological heritage and has inherited many temples devoted to several gods and goddess of Universal power. The Chottanikara Temple, located near Ernakulam, devoted to Bhagwati, the mother goddess. The peculiar thing was that the presiding deity is worshiped in three different forms as Saraswati, in morning draped in white, Bhadrakali at noon, draped in Crimson and Durga draped in blue.  The next temple   famous Guruvayoor Temple is one of the most popular pilgrimage destinations in South India. The Pundit or the Saint told us that the temple enshrines the youthful form of Krishna. He also told this temple hosts the maximum number of marriages and rice feeding ceremonies.  Sabrimala temple and Vadakkumanathan temples have a distinctive style of architecture and the structure of these temples are in harmony with the natural resources, especially keeping in mind the climatic condition. These temples extensively used stonework, wood work, stucco work and painting that were harmoniously blended into a structure vibrant with traditions of the region.

 Vidyaranyasvami (jurist Madhav Mantri) established the mighty   Hindu Kingdom of Vijaynagar (the City of Victory) in 1336 AD

                 Swami Vidyaranya who was committed to revival of Hindu Rule guided King Bukkaraya as his prime minister in 1356. On auspicious moment that somehow missed by a few minutes accidently (a stray moving sanyasi, gave the wrong signal a bit earlier, by blowing of the couch in a nearby jungle, without knowing that Vidyaranya, observing the sky, sitting on the top of a hill, was to blow his couch for fixing the auspicious moment) the Vijayanagar foundation stone was laid as per the Hindu calculations of the Constellations and the Planetary positions of the Cosmos. A recalculation, by Vidyaranya showed that the Hindu Empire would survive only 300 years, instead of the 1000 years span he wanted it to sustain. He of course guided the kingdom in the formative years and in 1372 he retired from political activities and devoted himself to carry out his spiritual activities as the Head of Sringeri religious Establishment. He died in 1386 after a glorious life and to-date gave an unsurpassed guidance to establish and guide the establishment of a Hindu Nationhood, and his role has been written in golden pages of Indian History. His memory is immortal for many an Indian and his scholarly writings were even referred for  subtlety of Indian Thought, and his superb contribution based on the calculations of Hindu Astronomy, in building the India resistance against Muslim persecution, plunder and destruction in the most crucial years. The Vijayanagar Empire brought out successfully the full wisdom and glory of ancient India in every aspect of public life, Society, administration and the protecting the people from exploitation. The most significant is the fact that it revived the entire Indian culture and brought it once again to the fore front of the world Empires. This of course led to immense jealousy and the Muslim rulers in particular were able to digest the rise of India with its past glory and pomp of wisdom and valor. It survived just for 229 years (1336-1565AD) and not the full period of 300 years as thought originally by Vidyaranya. This is because our greedy and pleasure seeking Kings have even tramped away the very wise ministers who were safe guarding the empire. It’s believed that the jealous brother-in-law of the King Krishna Devaraya made use of the sword to kill the only son of Krishna Devaraya that was presented to the Prime Minister Thimmarasu, and put the charge on him.
                   
              The Thimmarasu was  equal to Kautilya or Chanukya of the 400BC Magadha Empire and had all the wisdom to guide the Hindu Empire of Hampi & Vijayanagar since as per the Artha Sastra, he constructed irrigation water tanks for cultivation and people were able to reap almost three harvests each year.

                            Without any verification and in fury Sri Krishna Devaraya, made the prime minister of his own Empire, namely Thimmarasu, a Niyogi Brahmin of the Nellore District totally blind by harming his eyes.  Later Thimmarasu spent his days at the Anamacharya Village homes as a deserted person. These Niyogi Brahmins were very intelligent and earlier in the past, before Ashoka conquered the land of Kalinga; they were the rulers of the Kalinga Empire and as contrite of the shameful war in India Ashoka became a Buddhist.
                 
                             By 1347 Malerajya and Palasige of the Goa Kadabas were conquered and made part of the Vijayanagar Empire. The town of Hampi in 14th century was visited by several foreign traders and travelers. They have described it as one of the most glorious cities of the world. It had seven concentric circles of fortifications and it maintained a huge army with very intelligent officers of outstanding courage and wisdom.  It’s trade was described by foreigners that diamonds, precious stones,  ornaments of Gold and Silver Jewelry were sold in open markets on the roads leading to the temple of Virupaksha built by Vidyaranya Swami. He used a pin hole photography technique to supervise the construction of the temple from his meditation room. The empire flourished in trade of a variety of items of export quality, and especially the spices. It had full control over all the trade routes of South India including the sea ports. The death of Krishnadevaraya, brought on by himself, with the ruthless removal of the prime minister who was made blind, following a suspicion of the intriguing death of his only son,  later found too late as the treacherous act, by his brother-in-law and other close relatives. The history of India is full of such episodes of in fights among the greedy power lust Kings. Medieval historians found the Hampi town as one of the most important center of trade with India. The joint armies of the five Muslim kingdoms namely Bidar, Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmednagar and Berar combined effectively to completely destroy the mighty Hindu Empire in 1565. The empire was founded by Vidyaranya who was born on the 11th April 1296 to Mayanacharyulu and SriMati Devi in the Pampakshetra and lived up to 1386. People say he might have been born in Ekasila nagari i.e. modern Warangal. He was a great Vedic Scholar, a saint and an outstanding Minister of the Kingdom. Many seers and saints lived in India during the 14th century but only he could make the History of India true to its glory and life. After Adi Sankaracharya he was the only one who has put the Advaita Philosophy to the fore front of Hindu thought and the rule of the Jambhudweep once again. He knows that the wrongful people need to be punished and the righteousness to be upheld. He was a mentor and Minister adviser and practically an uncrowned King of the Hindu Empire who guarded the three generations of the Kshtriya fighters namely the Harihara Raya I and Bukkai Raya I, for the cause of the land and its honor from the Muslims.
                            
                 He authored Sarvadarsanasangraha an important treatise on Advaita Vedanta. Vidyathirtha or Vidya-Sankar, who was the head of the Sankaracharya Mutt of Sringeri, was the teacher of Vidyaranya swami. He was an Advaitin and guided the Harihara and Bukkai Raya for reviving the Vedic culture of harmonious and graceful living of mankind. Vidyaranya wrote a popular and comprehensive book on Advaita in Sanskrit. He was originally known as Madhavarya, along with his brothers he received education from his father but later left home and went to another teacher and later turned to be Vidyaranya after his renunciation in 1331. He was well known for his scholastic works on Vedas and other scriptures. He stopped the Muslim invasion of South India, skillfully in 13-14th centuries.

                    The 12th century was full of turmoil in the country and Delhi Sultans of  Bhakito Khilji and Tughlaq dynasties led many wars against several kings in India and moved down to South India to ransack all the Hindu Kingdoms, as a barbaric movement of converting people to Islam faith and religion. This was the great period of destruction in India of Hindu Kingdoms and ruthless operation of conversion, repression, outright murders, mayhem, abduction of women, destruction of temples, holy mutts, burning of scriptures and knowledge materials of books, writings, persecution of Indians in general and particularly Hindu people and mainly the loot of the wealth of India. Mohammed Bin Tughlaq (Juna Khan) (1325-1355) in 1323 after repeated raids and bitter wars in which Kakatiya valiant King Pratap Rudra lost the war and was captured. The King Rudhra seemed to have ended his life by jumping off into a river either the Godavari or the Narmada while being a captive and was being taken to Delhi to ward off dishonor. The glory of Kakatiya Empire dwindled with his ouster. Though he was rescued by his clever minister Yougandharayana and brought back to state he couldn’t revive the Empire because of fellow unfaithful people.

Kampili Kingdom

                     This kingdom of Jambukeswara (Kampiliraya) in Anegondi was invaded on the pretext of harboring a rebel and the brave King fought Tughlaq and met a heroic death in the battle field. Former employees in the service of Pratapa Rudra of Kakatiya were held prisoners and were taken to Delhi and were subjected to utter humiliation off conversion into Islamic faith. They were sent back to rule the Anegondi as governors of the Tughlaq and were made to pay Kappam (yearly subscriptions) to the treasury of Muslim faith.
                       
                      It was the clever Saint- Scholar-administrator Vidyaranya who showed them how to declare independence and establish the Vijayanagar Hampi Empire of Hindu people.
The place of Hampi was chosen since Vidyaranya saw that in that place two simple hares have driven off wild dogs on that site and realized the great potential to build an empire that would withstand Muslim invasions and persecutions.  He also got a dump of huge wealth from that ground during excavations which, was used to construct the city Hampi. The Vijayanagar Empire fell to the joint army action by five Muslim states Bijapur, Bidar, Golconda, Birar (didn’t take part in the war) and Ahmednagar with a great battle fought at Tallikota on the 25th December 1564. Araveeti (alias) Rama Raya, instead of the actual emperor Sadivarayalu of Vijayanagar fought the battle. When the war was to be won but one Muslim faithful commander of the Vijayanagar Empire committed treason and joined the enemies, marching away along with his troops. Thus the war was lost by the Hindus.
                          
                        Royal families of the empire ran away with wealth towards Penukonda, but the people were left open for a ruthless massacre. The Muslims ransacked the city, they stayed over for five months there and burnt, destroyed, everything that was fine and used crow bars and hammers to pull down the monuments. Rama Raya was killed instantly. The ferocity of destruction was one, of no parallel in the history of invasions by Muslims. Thousands of people were killed.
                    
               The capital of Vijayanagar Empire shifted to Penukonda and later to Chandragiri (Chittoor District) and survived for another 80 years but it never regained its pat glory of a Hindu Empire. In 1646 was plagued by feuds in dynastic succession by the short sighted rulers, treason by the vassals and rift among the minor subkingdom rulers that destroyed unity. The lat ruler Sri Rangaraya III failed miserably to root out the rot. His own vassals betrayed him. Rangaraya died in 1680 devoid of his throne or the Empire.

          “The forgotten Empire” book written by Robert Sewell, the District collector of Bellary during British Raj brought out the glory of the Vijayanagar Empire in Toto. The ruins of Hampi and Vijayanagar (built to honor Vidyaranya Swami) are now regarded as world’s heritage sites.

              The only one parallel to the up rise of Hindu Thought of human Life was by Saint (Ramdas) who was a spiritual Guru of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, and inspired the Maharastrians to establish the independent Hindu Kingdom, stopping the conquers of Aurangzeb in the 17th century. He was made to protect the Hindu faith by his patriotic mother, and the saint Ramdas, from the onslaught of marauding Mughals and saved the Hindus from persecution and forced conversions to Islam faith and religion. The Shivaji Empire grew to great Heights with the weakened Mughals rule in the 18th century, and also formed a formidable force and became a bottleneck for the East India Company till the time when they the Shivaji Empire people fell down to the British Raj at the great Panipat war in 1762 by the forces of the Afghan ruler Ahmed Sha Abdali Durrani.
     
              The first British outpost in South Asia was established in 1619 at Surat on the northwestern coast. Later in the century, the East India Company opened permanent trading stations at Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta, each under the protection of native rulers. Shivaji Maharaj is revered even to-date as an incarnation of Lord Shiva. Only Vidyaranya Swami and Ramdas were of a comparable stature in Indian History who designed perfectly to thwart the persecution by Muslim and Mughals of the Hindus in India. Hindu morale was revived by these two great Empires.
                       
                       Vidyaranya Swami identified for the first time the causes of for Hindu downfall, as a result of utter persecution by Muslims, and conversions to Islamic faith, and recorded them in a book known as the “Prayaschitta Suddhanidhi” . This book is a treasure of atonement for the sins. It was his great INTELLECT INDIA that safeguarded the Hindus from falling prey to the Islamic pleasure and thought. His effort of writing the Veda Bhashyam was to rebuild Hindu faith. He identified 14 evil acts due to the Islamic faith.
1. Physical union with menstruating women
2. Tasting the food eaten by menstruating women
3. Physical union with widows.
4. Physical union with unmarried girls.
5. Moving around with people who have left the right path and leading a wayward life.
6. Moving with completely falling women.
7. Eating in the same plate with people described above.
8. Touching female genitals with tongue.
9. Oral sex by men and women.
10. Taking away the property of temples.
11. Taking away the properties of Brahmins and learned men.
12. Accepting rewards and gifts from people who live by the acts described above.
13. Accepting prohibited goods.
14. Eating evil food and making mockery of those who lead pious lives.

Swami Vidyaranya wrote many scholarly books
1. Jeevanmukti vivekamu (A treatise on salvation)
2.  Anubhhoti prakashamu (Explanation for many Upanishads)
3.  Sangeeta saram (A treatise on Indian classical music)
4.  Sankara digvijayamu (Life history of Sankaracharya)
5.  Jaiminiyenyamala (Elaboration on Dwadasa lakshani written by sage Jaimini)
6.  Vivarana prameya sangraha. (Commentary on Vivarana written by sage
    II.  Prakashatma and on Pancha padeeka written by Sri Padmapadacharyudu who was
disciple of Adi Sankaracharya)
7.  Nrusinhottarataapaneeya Upanishad
8.  Panchadasi (A treatise on Adwaita Philosophy)
9.   Brihadaranya virikasaramu (A treatise and commentary on the commentary
   III. Written by Sri Sureswara ( Ist Disciple of Sankaracharya) on Briharanyakopanishad
this is an important source for Advaita philosophy
10. Prayaschitta Suddhanidhi ( A treatise on aspects of ill conduct by men that lead
to downfall and poverty and degradation)
11. Sayana Veda Bhashyam (detailed explanations on Vedas aided by Sayanacharya, his brother and a distinguished scholar)

 The Southern Rivals

                                When Gupta disintegration was complete, the classical patterns of civilization continued to thrive not only in the middle Ganga Valley and the kingdoms that emerged on the heels of Gupta demise but also in the Deccan and in South India, which acquired a more prominent place in history. In fact, from the mid-seventh to the mid-thirteenth centuries, regionalism was the dominant theme of political or dynastic history of South Asia. First, the spread of Brahman intellect and notably, often missed by historians the CRAFTSMANSHIP INTELLECT of India, was a process of preaching Vedas in Sanskrit and localization of Hindu Dharma with common man’s, a variety of dialects, to support art, sculpture, dance, music, drama and other activities that gave surprisingly  a strong and solid social order. Second, was the equal ascendancy of the Brahman priestly, tradesman, Kshtriya fighters and Vanavashis/or Manyam dwellers land cultivating agriculturalist groups, that they together, inspired regional institutions, political and financial authority for the cause of protection of the land and to feed the common man. Third, because of the see-sawing of numerous dynasties that had a remarkable ability to survive perennial military attacks, regional kingdoms faced frequent defeats but seldom total annihilation.
Peninsular India was involved in an eighth-century tripartite power struggle among the Chalukyas (556-757) of Vatapi, the Pallavas (300-888) of Kanchipuram, and the Pandyas (seventh through the tenth centuries) of Madurai. The Chalukya rulers were overthrown by their subordinates, the Rashtrakutas, who ruled from 753 to 973. Although both the Pallava and Pandya kingdoms were enemies, the real struggle for political domination was between the Pallava and Chalukya realms.
Despite interregional conflicts, local autonomy was preserved to a far greater degree in the south where it had prevailed for centuries. The absence of a highly centralized government was associated with a corresponding, local autonomy in the administration of villages and districts. This is the GENIUS and INTELLECT OF INDIA, that no matter what the political situation is in the region or in the neighborhood the common man’s needs were greatly safe guarded and plenty of food and comfort of living was provided by the Doctrine of Hindu Dharma and the dedicated accountants, land and revenue recorders and administrative SKILL IN THE FLOW OF TREASURE AND BARTER EXCHANGE OF GOLD and SILVER MONEY.  Extensive and well-documented overland and maritime trade flourished with the Arabs on the west coast and with Southeast Asia. Trade facilitated cultural diffusion in Southeast Asia, where local elites selectively but willingly adopted Indian art, architecture, literature, and social customs. Cambodia, Thailand, Ceylon and Japan etc countries of the East have flourished dependent on INTELLECT INDIA.
The inter-dynastic rivalry and seasonal raids into each other's territory notwithstanding, the rulers in the Deccan and South India patronized all three religions--Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism. The religions vied with each other for royal favor, expressed in land grants but more importantly in the creation of monumental temples, which remain architectural wonders. The cave temples of Elephanta Island (near Bombay, or Mumbai in Marathi), Ajanta, and Ellora (in Maharashtra), and structural temples of Kanchipuram (in Tamil Nadu), Madura Meenakshi are enduring legacies of otherwise warring regional rulers. By the mid-seventh century, Buddhism and Jainism began to decline as sectarian Hindu devotional cults of Shiva and Vishnu vigorously competed for popular support.
The Sanskrit was the language of learning and theology in India was mostly with the administrators of the kingdoms innumerable. The growth of the bhakti (devotional) movements originated several in the South, for example, Alwars of the 10th Century, and Madhavacharya Vishista Advaita and Ramanujacharyulu Dwaith Philospohies, which enhanced the spread of Hindu thought to the North for the crystallization of Sanskrit literature from all four major Hindu languages, Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, and Kannada, who even to-date preserved their local cultural lore. They often have their own special themes and vocabulary and Sanskrit became enriched due to them. For example in Telugu there were 56 letters while Sanskrit has less number of letters. Also the Telugu Poetry is much more a refined in Grammar (called the Chandasu) than the Sanskrit poetry.
Dr Dhamerla Venkata Surya Rao records that  “The festivals of Andhra Pradesh for example the Eruvaka Pournimi (the Full Moon Day of Jyesta month also known as krishi pournima) of rainy season is very important when the farmer for the first time holds the plowing instrument to till the farm field.
A sketch of the instruments used in performing an Yagnam genrally, during the Vedic Times, especially of Rig-Veda is given below.



                   Fig.34C This Puja (worship) is mentioned in both Rig Veda and Vishnu puranam

                                       This Puja (worship) is mentioned in both Rig Veda and Vishnu puranam. In the later it is refered as Seth Yagnam. When farmers do this yagnam, while Brahmins’ Yagnam on that day is Mantra Japam. At the same time the shepards community of Sri Krishna do Giri Yagnam.(when an unprecedent rain was showered on shepards by demons Sri Krishna lifted with just one finger the Govardhana Giri to protected them safely underneath the mountain). The poems sung at that time exist even to-date in Prakrit Telugu tongue among the farmers. It appears Telugu and other Prakrit languages contributed a lot to the Sanskrit. Buddha’s father King Sudhodhana used to gift away golden plowing instruments to the farmers mentioned in Lalithvistaram. Satavahana king Haludu book entitled “GHADHA SAPTHA SATHI” has a mention of Eruvaka Pournima and Eru means the instrument made ready for tilling the land and eruvaka means the beginning if the agriculturai farming. The oxen are fed with sweet, scented rice preparation known as Pongali, and the rod (ka'di) around them is respectfully worshiped, the horns are decorated with the sacred turmeric and kumkum (red powder) and with lighted chandeliers’ and scented aroma fire sticks they perform the puja. In the evening they actual start the plowing operations. They entire village participates with great reverence to the Gods and with Gongura Jute they decorate the entire village. They beat it with chernakole and take them as one wishes to feed their animals for yielding better milk. In America this type of festival is known as Maypove” The folklore poetry is known as Janapada Geyamulu.
                   
                Examples of Tamil literature include two major poems, Cilappatikaram (The Jewelled Anklet) and Manimekalai (The Jewelled Belt); the body of devotional literature of Shaivism and Vaishnavism, Hindu devotional movements and the reworking of the Ramayana by Kamban in the twelfth century. A nationwide cultural synthesis had taken place with a minimum of common characteristics in the various regions of South Asia, but the process of cultural infusion and assimilation would continue to shape and influence India's history through the centuries.

Southern Dynasties in India

                                 The Sultans' failure to hold securely the Deccan and South India resulted in the rise of competing southern dynasties: the Muslim Bahmani Sultanate (1347-1527) and the Hindu Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1565). Zafar Khan, a former provincial governor under the Tughluqs, revolted against his Turkic overlord and proclaimed himself sultan, taking the title Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah in 1347. The Bahmani Sultanate, located in the northern Deccan, lasted for almost two centuries, until it fragmented into five smaller states in 1527. The Bahmani Sultanate adopted the patterns established by the Delhi overlords in tax collection and administration, but its downfall was caused in large measure by the competition and hatred between deccani (domiciled Muslim immigrants and local converts) and paradesi (foreigners or officials in temporary service). The Bahmani Sultanate initiated a process of cultural synthesis visible in Hyderabad, where cultural flowering is still expressed in vigorous schools of deccani architecture and painting.

                        Founded in 1336, the empire of Vijayanagar (named for its capital Vijayanagar, "City of Victory," in present-day Karnataka) expanded rapidly toward Madurai in the south and Goa in the west and exerted intermittent control over the east coast and the extreme southwest. Vijayanagar rulers closely followed Chola precedents, especially in collecting agricultural and trade revenues, in giving encouragement to commercial guilds, and in honoring temples with lavish endowments. Added revenue needed for waging war against the Bahmani sultans was raised by introducing a set of taxes on commercial enterprises, professions, and industries. Political rivalry between the Bahmani and the Vijayanagar rulers involved control over the Krishna-Tunghabadhra river basin, which shifted hands depending on whose military was superior at any given time. The Vijayanagar rulers' capacity for gaining victory over their enemies was contingent on ensuring a constant supply of horses--initially through Arab traders but later through the Portuguese--and maintaining internal roads and communication networks. Merchant guilds enjoyed a wide sphere of operation and were able to offset the power of landlords and Brahmans in court politics. Commerce and shipping eventually passed largely into the hands of foreigners, and special facilities and tax concessions were provided for them by the ruler. Arabs and Portuguese competed for influence and control of west coast ports, and, in 1510, Goa passed into Portuguese possession. It was the time of Vijayanagar Empire many foreigners from western countries including those from English and French, have stealthily came to India, after the loot by the Muslims and Mughals, and took away many remaining treatises and books on art, craftsmanship, machinery, building constructions, Ayurveda secrets & medicinal plants knowledge, casting metal workmanship, mint technology, a fine collection of Vedas and Puranas. The pirate ship warriors were supported by the distant foreign administrators with financial help and promise of return of awards for brining the Wealth, spices and other agricultural produce. One thing is quite clear that unlike visitors from China, Greece and other non-western countries have kept open their records of observations and findings in India the visitors from Western countries were totally lip-tight and never divulged, even by chance, what they have gathered and in what manner they could secure the wealth, knowledge, know-how, and many other aspects of INTELLECT INDIA. They simply took them just for a go-by with ship loads and bag full almost in all cases of the loot of varied variety  by murder, intimidation and at several times at Gun-Point, like the Muslim Invader Mahmud of Gazani  plundered INDIA by ruthless killings and outrageous murders and who carried away hundreds of donkey, horse and giraffe loads of wealth.

                                  The city of Vijayanagar itself contained numerous temples with rich ornamentation, especially the gateways, and a cluster of shrines for the deities. Most prominent among the temples was the one dedicated to Virupaksha, a manifestation of Shiva, the patron-deity of the Vijayanagar rulers. Temples continued to be the nuclei of diverse cultural and intellectual activities, but these activities were based more on tradition than on contemporary political realities. (However, the first Vijayanagar ruler--Harihara I--was a Hindu who converted to Islam and then reconverted to Hinduism for political expediency.) When the five rulers of what was once the Bahmani Sultanate combined their forces and attacked Vijayanagar in 1565, the empire crumbled at the Battle of Tallikota.

REFERENCES and BOOKS
TREATIES and  MUSICOLOGISTS OF THIS PERIOD
      

 
           1. Brhaddsi   of  MATANGA: BETWEEN 700 AND 800 A.D OR 400 A.D. ?
This treaties provides connecting link between marga and desi ragas. It draws largely upon previous sources such as Bharata only adds chapter dealing  with the Ragas.
           2. Abhinabbharati of  ABHINABAGUPTA- 1000 A.D ?
It is a commentary on Natyashastra displaying wonderful grasp on dramatics and music. He crossed swords with Matanga  in respect of latter’s 12 svar murchhana.
It is a commentary on Bharat’s Natyashastra, without which perhaps Natyashastra would have been unintelligible.
            3. Sangeetratnakar of  SARANGADEVA-  1230 A.D
It has seven chapters. (1)svaraddhaya  treates on musical notes and scales (2) ragaddhaya contains definition and illustration of various ragas (3)prakirnaddhya explains various technical terms (4) prabandhhya describes musical compositions and its varieties (5) talayaddhya treates on tala (6) vadyaddhya deals with musical instruments (7) nrityaddhya explains dancing and acting.
       4. Sangeetmakaranda of NARADA / MANTRAGUPTA & OTHERS- 7TH century onwards compilation upto 14th and 15th century in its present form.
            5. Gitagovinda of JAYADEVA : about 1150  AD.
Jaydeva was the court-poet of King Laxshman Sena of Bengal. He was a Krishna-devotee.  Here Radha is the symbol of the human soul who pours forth in her song the pangs of separation from Krishna – the symbol of the divine. They are composed in PRABANDHA style and raga and tala for each song is indicated. He mentions 12 ragas – Bharabi, Basant, Karnat, Bibhas, Pondrakiri, Ramkiri, Malab, Gurjar, Khambaj, Gandhar, Deshabarri and Malabgaur and 5 talas- Rupak, Ektal, Jati, Aashtatal and Neeshar.
Sriranga Mahathmiyam is the compilation of religious accounts of the temple, detailing the origins of its greatness. According to it, Brahma, the Hindu God of Creation in Hindu mythology was once in a state of deep meditation and in His supreme trance received the gift of the Vishnu's idol, "Ranga Vimana". He was told by god that there would be seven other appearances of such idols on earth -- Srirangam, Srimushnam, Venkatadri (Tirumala), Saligram (Muktinath), Naimisaranya, Totadri, Pushkara and Badrinath. The idol was then passed on by Brahma to Viraja, Vaiswatha, Manu, Ishwaku and finally to Rama. Rama, himself an Avatar of Vishnu, worshipped the idol for a long time, and when he returned victoriously from Sri Lanka after destroying Ravana, he gave it to King Vibhishana as a token of appreciation for the latter's support for Rama against his own brother, Ravana. When Vibhishana was going via Trichy en route to Sri Lanka, the deity wanted to stay in Srirangam. Ranganatha, captivated by the sylvan setting of the place, stayed put, promising to cast his benign glance eternally on Lanka. Hence it is that the deity(in a reclining posture) faces South.

Invasion of Srirangam Temple



                                The Hall of 1000 pillars (actually 953) is a fine example of a planned theatre-like structure and opposite to it, "Sesha Mandap", with its intricacy in sculpture, is a delight.


                    The 1000-pillared hall made of granite was built constructed in the Vijayanagara period (1336–1565) on the site of the old temple. The pillars consists of sculptures of wildly rearing horses bearing riders on their backs and trampling with their hoofs upon the heads of rampant tigers, seem only natural and congrous among such weird surroundings.. The great hall is traversed by one wide aisle in the centre for the whole of its greater length, and intersected by transcepts of like dimension running across at right angles. There still remains seven side aisles on each side, in which all the pillars are equally spaced out. The Garuda Madapa (hall of the legendary bird deity of Vishnu, garuda) located on the south side of the thrid enclosure is another Nayak addition. Courtly portrait sculptures, reused from an earlier structure, are fixed to the piers lining the central aisle. A free standing shrine inside the hall contains a large seated figure of garuda; the eagle headed god faces north towards the principal sanctum. The Kili mandapa (Hall of parrot) is located next to the Ranganatha shrine, in the first enclosure of the temple. Elephant balustrades skirt the access steps that ascend to a spacious open area. This is bounded by decorated piers with rearing animals and attached colonettes in the finest 17th century manner. Four columns in the middle define a raised dais; their shafts are embellished with undulating stalks. The most artistically interesting of the halls that the Nayaks added to the complex is the Sesha Mandap on the east side of the fourth enclosure. The hall is celebrated for the leaping animals carved on to the piers at its northern end.

Gopurams

 Vellai gopurams (tower)



                              There are 21 gopurams (tower gateways), among which the towering 236-feet Rajagopuram (shrine of the main gateway) is the second tallest temple tower in Asia. The 73m high 13- tiered rajagopuram was built in 1987 by Ahobila Mutt and dominates the landscape for miles around, while the remaining 20 gopurams were built between the 14th and 17th centuries. The gopurams have pronounced projections in the middle of the long sides, generally with openings on each of the successive levels. The Vellai gopura (white tower) on the east side of the fourth enclosure has a steep pyramidal superstructure that reaches a height of almost 44m.


Pre 1987




Post 1987
Rajagopuram (tower)

Fig.39C The Incomplete structure of Rajagopuram over 400 years.

 Fig.40C The Rajagopuram did not reach its current height of 73 m. until 1987

                                        The structure of the rajagopuram remained incomplete at the base ('kalkaram', 17 meters high), for over 400 years. Started during the reign of Achyuta Deva Raya of Vijayanagar, the construction was given up after the king's death and apparently was not resumed owing to some political preoccupations or crisis. The Rajagopuram (the main gopuram) did not reach its current height of 73 m. until 1987, when the 44th Jeer of Ahobila Mutt initiated the process with the help of philanthropists and others. Constructed in a short span of eight years, this unique gopuram is a testimony to the single-minded devotion of the 44th Pontiff of the ancient Vaisnanite Ahobilaa Mutt, popularly known as Azhagiasinger and Jeer. The Rajagopuram was consecrated on 25 March 1987. The length and breadth at the base of the Rajagopuram is 166 feet and 97 feet, while the length and breadth at the top is 98 feet and 32 feet. Befitting the gargantuan dimensions of the structure, every one the 13 glistening copper 'kalasams' atop the tower weighs 135 kg and measures 3.12m(height) by 1.56m (diameter).

 Epigraphy and later history

                        The inscriptions in the temple belong to the Chola, Pandya, Hoysala and Vijayanagar dynasites who successively swayed the destinities of the Tiruchirapalli district. They range in the date between 9th and 16th century A.D. and are registered by  ephigrahical society.
The location where the Ranganathan idol was placed was later covered by an overgrowth of deep forests, due to disuse. After a very long time, a Chola king, chasing a parrot, accidentally found the idol. He then established the Ranganathaswamy temple as one of the largest temple complexes in the world.
                    According to historians, most dynasties that ruled the South—Cholas, Pandiyas, Hoysalas, Nayakkas—assisted with renovation and in the observance of the traditional customs. Even during periods of internal conflicts amongst these dynasties, utter importance was given to the safety and maintenance of these temples. It is said that a Chola king presented the temple with a Golden Serpent Couch. Some historians identify this king with Rajamahendra Chola, supposedly the son of Rajendra Chola II. But it is of interest to note that he never figures in the latter's inscriptions, neither in the 4th year (that shows various members of the family going on rampage in different regions) nor in the 9th year (that shows only one member of the second generation).
During the period of invasion by Malik Kafur and his forces in 13101311, the idol of the deity was stolen and taken to Delhi. In a daring exploit, devotees of Srirangam ventured to Delhi and enthralled the emperor with their histrionics. Moved by their talent, the emperor was pleased to gift them the presiding deity of Srirangam, which was requested by the performers. Things took a drastic turn immediately. Surathani, his daughter, fell in love with the deity and followed him to Srirangam. She prostrated herself to the God in front of the sanctum sanctorum and is believed to have attained the heavenly abode immediately. Even today, a painting of "Surathani" (known as Thulukha Nachiyar in Tamil) can be seen in the Arjuna Mandap adjacent to the sanctum sanctorum for whom, chappathis (wheat bread) are made daily.

                         Having assumed that the magical power of the deity had killed his daughter, there was a more severe second invasion to Srirangam in 1323 A.D. The presiding deity was taken away before the Emperor's troops reached Srirangam by a group led by the vaishnavite Acharaya (Guru), Pillai Lokacharyar, who died en-route to Tirunelveli in Tamil Nadu. The Goddess Renganayaki was taken in another separate procession. Swami Vedanta Desika, instrumental in planning the operations during the siege of the temple, closed the sanctum sanctorum of the temple with bricks, after the processions of the presiding deities had left, thereby protected the temple for generations to come.

                    13,000 Sri Vaishnavas, the people of Srirangam, laid down their lives in the fierce battle to ensure that the institution was protected. In the end, Devadasis, the danseuse of Srirangam, seduced the army chief, to save the temple.

Orlov Diamond depiction

         
                     After nearly six decades, the presiding deity returned to Srirangam and the same Swami Vedanta Desika, who had built a brick wall in front of the sanctum sanctorum, broke it open. The deity and the priestly wardens wandered southwards towards Madurai, then northeast towards Kerala, Mysore, Tirunarayanapuram, and finally in the hills of Tirumala Tirupati, where they remain until reinstalled in 1371.

The Orlov diamond

                         The Orlov diamond 189.62 carats (37.924 g), is a large diamond that is part of the collection of the Diamond Fund of the Moscow Kremlin. The origin of this resplendent relic, described as having the shape and proportions of half a hen's egg. This diamond and a similar gem served as the eyes of the deity in the temple. Legends hold that a French soldier who had deserted during the Carnatic wars in Srirangam disguised himself as a Hindu convert and stole it during 1747.

                                      Srirangam is the foremost of the eight self-manifested shrines (Swayam Vyakta Kshetras) of Lord Vishnu. It is also considered the first, foremost and the most important of the 108 main Vishnu temples (Divyadesams). This temple is also known as Thiruvaranga Tirupati, Periyakoil, Bhoologa Vaikundam, and Bhogamandabam. In the Vaishnava parlance the term "KOIL" signifies this temple only. The temple is enormous in size. The temple complex is 156 acres in extent. It has 7 prakaras or enclosures. These enclosures are formed by thick and huge rampart walls which run round the sanctum. There are 21 magnificent towers in all prakaras providing a unique sight to any visitor. This temple lies on an islet formed by the Twin Rivers Cauvery and Coleroon.

Description
                            The temple of Srirangam is situated at 10 degrees 52’N and 78 degrees 42’ E towards the southern tip of India on an Island formed by two arms of the River Cauvery. The temple covers a vast area of about 6, 31,000 Sqm. (156 Acres). The temple consists of seven Concentric rectangular enclosures round the sanctum sanctorum. The temple of Srirangam is the only one in India with seven enclosures, a sacred symbolic number which for present day Vaishnava believers represents either the seven centers of Yoga, or a reference to the seven elements making up the human body, in the center of which dwells the soul. 7 Prakarams denoting the 7 Lokam (worlds).

         Fig.43C Temple of Srirangam 10d 52N 78d 42E 
                        with the white structure
                            There are 7 prakarams (the only Divya Desam to have so) at this temple that relate to the 7 lokams (7 worlds) each of which is said to be a step in leading us to Vaikuntam.

                               Seventh enclosure (Bhoo Lokam).The gopuras of the seventh enclosure are unfinished. They are called Rayagopuram. The impressive dimensions of their bases prove that when finished, they would have risen to a height of at least 50.m. This is also called the Chitra Street now has a row of shops and offices.

                       Sixth enclosure (Bhoovar lokam). The sixth enclosure has four gopuras; the eastern gopura is the most impressive of all on account of its size the inscriptions in Thirteenth Century characters. The processional chariots are kept in this enclosure. This also has a market called Uthara Street.
                         Fifth enclosure (Swar Lokam). This Prakaram has ChakkarathAzhvaar and Andal Sannidhi on the West and Thaayar Sannidhi on the Southern side. The Sesha Raya Mandapam, on the Eastern side has several battle field sculptures that reminds one of the great times of Vijayanagara rulers. Opposite this is the 1000 pillar mandapam where the Vaikunta Ekadesi festivities and the recital of Naalaayira Divya Prabandham (4000 songs composed by Azhvaars) as well as the Araiyar Sevai take place. This prakaram has some beautiful sculptures, possibly built by the Hoysala somewhere around 1200AD. Some of the sculptures depict girls playing the veena and ladies holding beautiful parrots. This prakaram has the famous White Gopuram at the Eastern Entrance to the temple.

Kamban Ramaayana and Srirangam Temple

            The Great Tamil poet Kamban had in his composition of the Raamaayana written about the Lord destroying Hiranya, the mention of which did not find universal acceptance. Kamban retorted stating that if the Lord accepted his version, then the world could not dispute it. He stood outside the Thaayar Sannidhi of this temple and recited his version. Lord Azhagiya Singar, who heard this composition, accepted this version. In memory of this, there is an Azhagiya Singar Sannidhi in the 5th Prakaram of the temple. Recognising the importance of this event, there is a separate Kamban Mandapam opposite the Thaayar Sannidhi.
Fourth enclosure (Mahar Lokam)
                                  The walls of the 4th prakaram were built by ThiruMangai Azhvaar. This prakaram houses one of the biggest mandapams for Garuda among the 108 Divya Desams. This has over 200 pillars and is also possibly the most beautiful mandapam in the temple. On the southern side of this prakaram, one finds the Paramapada vaasal, also called Swarga Vaasal (the Gateway to Heaven), that opens only once a year during Vaikunta Ekadesi. Among the 108 Divya Desams, this is the only temple to have a Sannidhi for Dhanvantri, the medicinal God, which is located in this Prakaram, opposite the tank.

Ramanuja and Srirangam

Srirangam cannot be discussed without mentioning the great Vaishnavite scholar of Ramanujacharya who attained divinity here. His "Swayam Thirumeni" (the symbolic body) is preserved and offered prayers even today after 8 centuries. His Shrine is found in the fourth "prakara" of the temple and his "Thirumeni" is preserved in the temple in a seated position, by applying saffron and camphor every six months in a ritualistic style. All the devotees are said to wash their feet when going into the Sannadhi of Sri Ranganathar, because the artistic works on Sri Ramanujar are found in the floors here.
Third enclosure (Jano Lokam)
One can enter the 3rd prakaram only through the Arya Bhattal Tower. This houses several mandapams. While this is a dark area, one finds a special peace when inside this prakaram.
Second enclosure (Thapo Lokam)
The 2nd prakaram, which one enters through the NaazhiKetaan Entrance is called the Raja Mahendran street in memory of the Chozha king who built it. This prakaram also has the Kili (Parrot) Mandapam and the big Glass mirror, through which one can see the Lord when he comes out on procession.
First enclosure (Sathiya Lokam)
The first Prakaram was built by Chozha King Dharma Varma. There are 24 pillars inside this prakaram where(sanctum sanctorum) one finds Lord Ranganatha in his sleeping posture facing South(Lanka). These 24 pillars, it is said, denote the 24 letters of the Gayantri Mantra.
Moolavar: SRI LORD RANGANATHA PERUMAL in reclining posture (Bhujanga Sayanam), on AadhiSeshan faces South and gives Dharshan to the devotees.
Uthsavar: NamPerumaal, Azhagiya ManavaalanThaayaar: Sri Ranga Nachiarii, in separate Sannidhi.
                       

                                 Prathyasham (Physically gave Dharshan to): Dharma varma, Ravi dharman, Chandhran and Vibeeshanan.

Vimanam: Pranavaakruthi. It took almost 7 and half years to build this huge vimanam (Gopuram). It is also called as "Raja Gopuram". This Raja Gopuram is 236 feet high with 13 Nilais (Partition) and 12 Kalasams at its top.
                     


Sthala Puranam
            Once on the base of Himalaya, River Ganga, Cauvery, Yamuna and Saraswathi are playing in the sky one ghandharvan (person who belong to Deva lokam) saw these rivers playing and worshipped them. Seeing this, all the 4 river women started saying themselves that he worshipped them only. They started arguing on whom actually he worshipped. The argument continued but didn’t stop. Yamuna and Saraswathi stopped their quarrel. But to Ganga and Cauvery it continued. Finally, they both went to Sriman Narayanan.

                     River Ganga told to Narayanan since she was originated from the feet of Narayanan, she is bigger and mightier than Cauvery. Sriman Narayanan accepted it. But, Cauvery doesn’t accept it and she did tapas on Sriman Narayanan. Finally, Narayanan gave seva to her and told him that he will sleep on the bank of Cauvery and at that time, river Cauvery will be the garland (Maalai) in his chest, which will the better position than Ganga, who is found in his feet. This is the sthalapuranam said here.
              
                           It is a traditional belief that Adi Sankara installed at Srirangam, a Yantra called Janakarshana Yantra (to attract pilgrims) to this sacred temple, just as at Tirupati he installed the Dhanakarshana Yantra (to attract wealth). Sankara infused immense power to this Yantra, which has proved by its action perfectly true to its name. Tirupati is the richest temple in the South, may be in whole of India, and Srirangam is the most visited temple in the South. Though it is primarily a Vaishnavite temples, believers in different tenets of faith do pay their homage at the temple of Ranganatha, the Adi Purusha in blissful slumber, floating on the Banyan leaf during cosmic deluge. The Adi Purusha in his eternal happiness remained afloat on the Milky Ocean, for how long nobody can say. He wanted to create the Universe. Lord Vishnu appeared before Brahma in the form of a swan. Brahma questioned its identity, to which the swan replied with two monosyllables 'OM' and 'THAP' and disappeared. Brahma construed this bewildering reply as a direction to start penance uttering the word 'OM'. After long years of penance, the four Vedas appeared. After years of further penance, Bhoomi (land, the earth) appeared then the fire, the sky and Devaloka, the heaven where angels stay, and human beings, animals, etc., gradually appeared. At that time, a demon, by name Madhu Kaitabha, appeared from the ear of Brahma and snatched the Vedas from him and disappeared into the ocean. This incident annoyed Brahma, who also plunged into the ocean to search for the miscreant. Vishnu took the form of a horse (Hayagriva) and annihilated the ace of Madhu Kaitabha and recovered the Vedas and taught the same to Brahma. After the initiation by Lord Vishnu himself, Brahma started creating the Universe, which is made of the five elements, Prithvi (earth), Jal (water), Vayu (air), Tejas (fire), Vyoma (ether) and sixteen spheres of the Universe and gave a start to the natural law of the Universe.Creation only being his main port folio, when he set the natural law in motion, his work was completed and the Universe would go on in the cycle of Karma, i.e., and action done by the created beings. As one's karma becomes the decisive factor for the continuance of the universe under the influence of natural law, Brahma realized in his observation that a time might come when his own action will be put to judgement. He felt the necessity of getting advice from Narayana. To invoke him, he started penance in the Milky Ocean. After long years of penance, Lord Narayana appeared before him on Garuda and asked him what he wanted. Brahma requested Narayana to show him his real form. Lord Narayana replied that nobody has seen his real Jyothi (effulgent) Swarupam. He said further: "It is I who appeared before you as a swan. It is I who brought you the Vedas. It is I who took the form of Hayagriva and annihilated the demon. And now I have come on my Garuda. I have taken up the responsibility of protecting the Universe and if you want to visualize my real form, you will have to utter the Ashtakshara Mantra in deep veneration. At this, Brahma started the penance. Like this a thousand years elapsed, and at the end, Lord Vishnu appeared in a Ranga Vimanam from the Milky Ocean. Ranga Vimanam is the name given to a special chariot-like conveyance carried by Veda Murtis on their head, having Lord Vishnu inside the Vimanam (vehicle). Nagaraja was holding the white umbrella in attendance. Senapati Vishwaksena was holding a cane and chamaram (fan). Narada with Tumburu, uttering the hymns in praise, along with Devas, Angels, Kinnarasi (heavenly beings) were in prayerful attention. Sages Sanat kumara and others, the usual mythological attendants of Vishnu, were following the chariot. In deep veneration Brahma went round the chariot four times chanting the four Vedas with his four mouths and stood before Lord Vishnu in prayerful pose representatives of all the worlds of the Universe, including Durga, Saraswati, Sapta Rishis, Navagrahas, constellations of stars and the Ashta Palakas (eight doorkeepers) and others were also in attendance.  Being pleased with the penance of Brahma, for the first time the real Swarupam of Vishnu in Ranga Vimanam with his attendants was shown to him as desired. Since that day the Ranga Vimanam became most famous, as the real seat of the Universal God. Brahma wanted to worship Lord Vishnu in the Vimanam forever. Lord Vishnu agreed to his request and Brahma took him to his abode in Satyaloka.
                             
                        Brahma was happy to worship the Vimanam. News spread in course of time to Manu, the son of Sun God Surya, who was attracted and desired to have the darshan, for which he performed a penance and fulfilled his desire by a visit to Satyaloka and, paying homage’s to the Ranga Vimanam, then in the custody of Brahma, he attained liberation. Manu's son Ikshwaku cherished the desire of possessing the Ranga Vimanam for the benefit of the people on earth. He consulted his family preceptor, Vasishtha (priest of the Surya vamsha), who advised him to start penance uttering the sacred Ashtakshara Mantra. Accordingly, Ikshwaku started a severe penance which puzzled even the devas, foreboding evil days for them. They attempted to spoil the penance by deputing Maninatha and the celestial nymphs to distract his attention. Indra took the lead in this affair and did not even hesitate to send the Vajraayudha (lightning weapon) to foil the penance. But all failed in their attempts. In disappointment, they prayed to Brahma, to save them from the baffling catastrophe. Brahma on his part approached Ranganatha for advice.  Ranganatha consoled Brahma by expressing his desire to go to Ayodhya where he would be worshipped by the descendant of the Solar dynasty for four Yugas, and at the end of the fourth Yuga he would go to the kingdom of the Cholas in the South, on the banks of the Kaveri, where he would stay for 700 years. At the end, of this period he would return to Brahmaloka. Brahma was directed to part with the Ranga Vimanam to Ikshwaku. From Ikshwaku to Lord Rama time, this Vimaan was worshipped and belonged to Ayodhya Kings. Sri Ramar who took the avathaar as an ordinary human being, worshipped Sri Ranganathan, the god is also named as "Periya Perumal". After his pattabishekham (crowned as king), he gave the Thiru Aranga Vimaanam to King Vibeeshan, which belongs to Ayodhya Kings and their followers. Coming along with the Thiruvaranga temple vimaanam, the Chola king and the Rishis present requested Vibhishana to perform the Adi Brahmotsava there itself instead of in Lankha. Vibhishana agreed to this request. So he kept the vimaanam in the midst of Cauvery river to worship it. During the worship, Chozhan Dharmavarman and lots of Rishis also joined. In commemoration of this incident, the Brahmotsava is performed on the day of the full moon in the month of Panguni, Uttaram day. After finishing all the poojas, tried to take the vimaanam along with him to Lanka, he was unable to take it and he could not even move. This must have caused almost heartbreak to Vibhishana who went on praying to Lord Ranganatha to save him from the situation. At that time, Sri Aranganathan told since he had given varam (promise) to River Cauvery and since he has to purify her, he has to be all along the Cauvery River. And told that he will not be in a position to move from there. But on hearing this, King Vibeeshan became sad, for which Sri Aranganathan says that inspite of not coming to Lanka, but he will be facing the south direction of Lanka. This is the history explaination of Sri Rangam.  There's another similar story that says that Vibeeshan was to carry the Deity back to Lankha but had to stop for taking bathe, and that Lord Rama had addressed stating that He in the form of Sri Ranganathan would allow Himself to be carried back to Lankha by Vibeeshan and then placed down He would not move. Vibeeshan understanding that, needed someone to hold the Deity while he relieved himself and bathed and returned. He found nearby one Brahmin boy and entrusted the task of holding the Deity of Raganath to him to which he agreed. And NOT to put the Deity down..... Anyway when Vibeeshan returned, he found the boy gone and the Deity firmly fixed to the spot facing the south. Vibeeshan's rakshasa nature came out and he became so angry at the boy taking out his sword he cased him. Vibhishana ran after him. Lord Ganesha climbed up to the top of a large nearby cliff. But, there, Vibhishana caught him and struck him on the forehead. At that moment, Ganesha revealed his true form to Vibhishana, who immediately apologized2, asked for his blessings and continued on his way to Lanka. The enormous rock Lord Ganesha climbed upon now forms the Uchi Pillayar Temple, only a few kilometers from Sri Rangam. The desire of Dharma Varma, the Chola prince, was fulfilled in this miraculous way. He started constructing a gigantic structure for installing the Ranga Vimanam. Dharma Varma worshipped the Ranga Vimanam for a long time and attained salvation. Years passed and once an unprecedented flood came in River Kaveri, which brought an enormous quantity of silt and sand and flooded the entire country. It is said that the flood was so devastating that even the peak of the gopuram of the temple was submerged under sand and looked like a sand dune. The entire city surrounding it was utterly devastated. The Chola king shifted the capital from Tri (Uraiyur) to Tanjore. The Ranga Vimanam temple was left uncared for, submerged under sand, which gradually gave rise to other growth of vegetation, which at last became a wasteland. Then it so happened that once Chola prince went out for a pleasure hunt. He rested for some time under a tree in this forest.A parrot living on the tree suggested to king that down below be lying submerged the sacred Ranga Vimanam. (The prince thereafter came to be known as Kilikanda Chola, who saw the parrot). The Chola king had heard about the Ranga Vimanam and found its location in the forest from the parrot. The information was also corroborated by a dream seen by the prince. Upon validation, the king started excavation work and unearthed the temple walls and prakarams. He also developed it further and made additions and alterations to the temple particularly the addition of a mandapam in the name of the parrot, still known as Kili Mandapam. He re-established the religious rite rituals in the temple as before. He became an ardent devotee of Ranganatha and attained liberation later. The other major vicissitude in the history occurred during the reign of Raja Mahendra Chola, when a sudden spring sprouted up emitting a huge quantity of water during the flood in which it blocked the passage of the entrance to the temple and threatened to engulf the temple base. The King had the passage blocked and gopuram constructed over it, making a second prakaram like the wall of defence. For this beneficial work done by him he too attained liberation. During the period of invasion by Malik Kafur and his forces in 1310–1311, Namperumal was stolen and taken to Delhi. In a daring exploit, devotees of Srirangam ventured to Delhi and enthralled the king with their histrionics. Moved by their talent, the King was pleased to gift them the presiding deity of Srirangam, which was requested by the performers. Things took a drastic turn immediately. Surathani, his daughter fell in love with the deity and followed him to Srirangam. She prostrated to the God in front of the Sanctum Sanctorum and is believed to have attained the Heavenly Abode immediately. Even today, a painting of "Surathani" (known as "Thulukha Nachiyar" in Tamil) can be seen in the Arjuna Mandap adjacent to the Sanctum Sanctorum. Position of Lord Ranganathar: The position which Sri Ranganathar is found in this Sthalam is one of the great thing that has to be explained.
                        

                                           In this sthalam, Aranganathan is found inside the Aranga Vimaanam, Keeping five headed Aadhi seshan as the bed, his legs stretched along the direction of the sun's upcoming side (East) direction from where the moon in the evening rises and Lord Yaman, who is the demon king and cool breeze and wind which are said to be found from the South direction are seen by Aranganathan and he sees Lanka. Behind him, is Kuberan (North Direction) and Selva Magal (Sri Lakshmi) are found. His right hand is kept under his head as a "Pillow" and the left hand is on his lap and it is pointed to his feet. This position explains to the world that all the Jeevathmas are finally getting terminated only in his feet. IT IS BELIEVED - The darshan of Lord Sri Ranganatha is graced (achieved) only to those who had taken birth in Srirangam in their earlier lives. Only such sacred souls that CRAVE for the Lord get the darshan of Lord Ranga. There was a king of TRAVANCORE (Kerala) who was craving for Darshan of Ranga and composed - Ranga yatra diney diney - meaning every day he wanted to go Srirangam but was retained by his ministers. These kings believed that entire kingdom is of Lord and they only do duty fulfilling the Lord's will. This king is none other than KULA SEKHARA ALWAR.

There is another composition –
SAPTA PRAKARA MADHYEY SARASIJA MUKULOD BHASA MANEY VIMANEY, KAVERI THATA PARISARA MADHYA SALILE RANGA NATHAM BHAJAMI

Importance of Rameshwaram

             Taking the Ganga water to Rameshwar, is considered as a very auspicious and pious thing to do after the pilgrimage of the four holy shrines. After taking a holy bath in Ganga water, the holy water is carried and offered to Lord shiva of Rameshwaram. After this a little sand from here is carried to Ganga and immersed there. Completing this ritual is believed to make one’s pilgrimage complete and successful. On the southern seaside of India, Rameshwar sea shrine is located. In classics like the Skandha Purana, Shivapurana etc., Rameshwar is shown as a very important place. The story of Rameshwara goes like this:

Puranam of Rameshwar Jyothirlingam

                               After Sita’s abduction, Ram wandered in the jungles looking for her. While doing so, he met Sugriva and made friends with him. Later with the help of special messenger Sri Hanuman, he found out where Sita was taken. Then Rama prepared an army to invade Ravana’s empire and reached the southern seashore. He did not have any means of crossing the sea. Lakshman and Sugriva saw Rama, who is a Shiva devotee in great anguish and could do nothing. But Ravana received some special boons from Lord Shiva. Rama was aware of this and therefore, his fears could not be set at rest. In the mean time, Rama was full thirsty. Just as he was about to drink water, he remembered that he was yet to perform Shiva pooja. He immediately made a Prathiv Linga and worshipped it with sixteen methods, i.e., Shodasopachar Vidhis.
                          Ramji prayed to Lord Shiva ardently and soulfully, and sang songs of Lord Shiva’s praise in a loud voice. He danced and made the sounds of “Aagad bam bam”. This pleased Lord Shiva immediately and instantly appeared before Rama and told him that could ask for any boons and that he would grant them. Ram showed a lot of care, affection and love to Lord Shiva and prayed and paid obeisance. Rama said “If You want to grant me my wishes, please stay on this earth for the sake of all make it holy” Shiva granted the same by saying “Evamastu” meaning “so be it”. He thus stayed there and came to be known as Rameshwara, in the form of a Shiva Linga and became popular. With the blessings of Lord Shiva, Rama killed all the demons including Ravana and became victorious. Any one who takes a Darshan of the JyotirLinga at Rameshwar and sprinkles the holy water of Ganga, attains salvation, Kaivalya Moksha or Nirvana.

Specialities of Rameshwaram

                        The place where the JyotirLinga is located, a large and expansive temple has been built. It is famous in the world as a typical architectural example. In the Ramnad district of Tamilnadu, this temple is situated on a big island of sand. It is worth seeing and is a wonderful experience. The main entrance of the temple tower has many storeys and stands tall. Its structure carvings, statutes and the peaks make people dumb founded. The grandeur of the Lord is really felt here. The human weakness for being narrow-minded is automatically removed and they feel their horizons broadened. On the tall stone pillars of temple, beautiful carvings can be seen. Elephants with their trunks raised are seen. The four sides of the temple are enclosed by strong stone walls. They are 650 ft. and 12ft. wide and tall respectively. This wonderful temple built on the sand island, is a work of great art and very impressive. Near to a gold plated pillar, a river is carved on a monolithic stone of 13 feet high and a foot wide. This indeed is a typical example of beautiful sculpting. Near the main temple of Rameshwar, there is a separate temple for Parvati known as Parvatavardhini temple. Besides this, there are temples of Santana Ganapati, Veerabhadra Hanuman, navagrahas, etc. At a distance of about nearly 2 kilometers from the main temple, there is Gandhamaadhan mountain. In spite of being a sandy area, it is very green with a variety of flora. This is the Nandanavan of Rameshwar. This island shrine consists of 24 odd holy water sources like Rama teerth, Sita Kund, Jata Teerth, Lakshman Teerth, Kapi Teerthas, Brahmakund, Galawa teerth, Mangala teerth, Kodandaram teerth, Pandav teerth etc., The waters at all these places is sweet and has a taste of its own. Every teerth has a typical story attached to it. Devotees take Darshan and feel purged by doing so.
                       Everyday, right from 4am till 10pm devotees keep coming to the temple and prayers go on. After the Harati at night, the Lord is made to sleep in a Golden swing i.e., the Bhoga statutes of Shankara and Parvati put to bed. During Mahashivaratri and on the 15th day in the month of Ashadha (Rainy season) a Badatra mela/fete takes place, with great festivity. Devotees flock here on these days and at all times right from Nepal and entire India. People in a variety of dresses, attired differently come here. sambandhar, and appar have sung padhikam  on the Lord of Rameshwaram.

Katas Raj Mandir

                         Katas Raj Mandir is a Hindu mandir situated in Katas village in the Chakwal district of Punjab in Pakistan. Dedicated to Shiva, the temple has existed since the days of Mahābhārata and the Pandava brothers spent a substantial part of their exile at the site. The Pakistan Government is considering nominating the temple complex for World Heritage Site status. It also proposes to spend about Rs 20 million in three phases for the restoration of the complex. History: Most of the temples, located some 40 km from the modern city of Chakwal in the Potohar region of northern Punjab in Pakistan, were built during the reign of Hindu kings. These several temples were built around 900 years ago or more, although the earliest of the Katasraj temples dates back to the latter half of the 6th century AD Scholars believe that most of the temples were actually constructed when the Shahi kingdom, driven from Afghanistan when their ethnic cousin Mahmud of Ghanavi came to power, fled to the region and set up base there. The mandir was abandoned by local Hindus when they migrated to East Punjab in 1947. It has always been the site of holy pilgrimage for people of various faiths. Even nowadays, worshippers from all faiths perform pilgrimages to the mandir every year and bathe in the sacred pool around which Katasraj is built.

                          
                          Lake Kallar Kahar in the Salt Range of Pakistan, is a union council and subdivision of Chakwal District in Punjab, Pakistan. It is a tourist destination located 25 kilometres southwest of Chakwal along the motorway. It is notable for its natural gardens, peacocks and a saltwater lake. It is 125 km away from Rawalpindi. The Katasraj temples are situated in Choa Saidanshah tehsil (CSS), in 1981 a project was started named as Pak German Project (PGP).

STOLEN PANCHLOHA IDOLS OF INDIA 

AND HIMALAYA HINDU KINGDOMS


                                   Lucknow, July 21 (IANS) Idols of Hindu gods and goddesses, dating back to the 10th and 11th century, were recovered from a tunnel in Etawah district, about 200 kms from here, officials said Monday. The idols were recovered from the compound of an ancient Lord Shiva temple in Dadora village. “A four-wheeler was parked inside the temple compound last week and after it left, the soil caved in,” temple priest S.P. Dikshit told IANS. A tunnel was discovered after the locals dug up the soil. Over a dozen idols were found subsequently. A team of the Archaeological Society of India (ASI) reached the spot Monday and carried out an inspection. “A police team has been stationed at the site as the recovered idols appear to be of historical importance. Experts are also camping in the area carrying out tests and exploring possibilities for further excavation,” senior superintendent of police- Etawah, S.R.S. Aditya told IANS. Shimla, Sep 17 (IANS) Five 17th century Bronze Idols have been stolen from a temple in Himachal Pradesh, police said Tuesday. The antique idols were found missing from the Miya Ka Mandir in Nahan, about 140 km from here, Wednesday noon. The head priest was not in the temple at the time. “Initial investigations rule out the involvement of smugglers behind the theft. Five Bronze idols were taken away from the total 11 idols,” said Assistant Superintendent of Police Rani Bindhu Sachdeva. “Some drug addicts, who were regular visitors to the temple, seem to be behind the theft,” Sachdeva told IANS. The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has been informed about the theft of the idols, which had been installed in 1785 by Miya Maldeav and Miya Kushal Singh of the erstwhile Bilaspur princely state. Wednesday’s theft has once again put the spotlight on the treasures housed in hundreds of temples and monasteries without proper security.  In 2010, two ancient idols were stolen from the Shoolini temple in Solan town. In another incident, ancient coins and silver artefacts went missing from the Suryavanshi temple in Kullu town.

MODERN INDIA

                             More than 2,500 years later, Mahatma Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, the father of modern India, used these concepts of Hindu Dharma in the fight for independence (see Mahatma Gandhi books).

Current India of Young Intellect

               Rajahmundry student Aditya (son of Ramanada Kumar, School teacher of Panchayt Raj Department of Nagavalli) soon to join along with Mr. Pramod Sreedharan, as a research assistant to Yong Kwun Lee, of Bio-Robotics lab, KIST, Seoul, South Korea. He published a paper on single chamber asymmetric micro actuators. He is interested to develop cell phone operated car, a remote controlled boat and a robotic gripper etc.

                       
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
                                                                 The author is deeply indebted to Late Prof. K. R. Rao D.Sc. (Madras) D.Sc. (London) of Andhra University Colleges, Visakhapatnam, Andhra State without whose encouragement and guidance the author would not have  succeeded in his life.
Dated 28 August 2013 at 8h39m PM.

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